Definition and Origin
The term ‘feminisation of poverty’ was introduced by Diana Pearce in the late 1970s. It refers to the phenomenon where women, particularly those in female-headed households, experience a disproportionate increase in poverty levels compared to men. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) characterises this condition as one where shifts in poverty levels unfavourably impact women. Studies have shown that women endure a higher intensity of poverty in numerous countries, including India.
Current Statistics in India
According to a UN Women report published in 2020, approximately 87 million women and girls in India were living in extreme poverty, defined as living on less than $1.90 a day. The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated this situation, with projections indicating that around 100 million women and girls would suffer from extreme poverty by 2021. Prior to the pandemic, the poverty rate for females was higher than that for males, and this gap was expected to widen.
Economic Disparities
Economic factors play important role in the feminisation of poverty. Women often earn less than men for equivalent work, contributing to a persistent gender pay gap, which ranges from 19% to 30% depending on the sector. Many women are engaged in informal employment, which lacks stability, security, and adequate wages. Limited access to high-paying jobs further exacerbates their economic vulnerability.
Educational Inequality
Educational barriers impact women’s economic status. Women generally have lower literacy rates compared to men and face limited access to quality education and vocational training. Societal norms often prioritise boys’ education, restricting opportunities for girls. This educational inequality has long-term consequences, hindering women’s ability to secure better employment.
Social and Cultural Factors
Traditional gender roles and societal expectations confine women primarily to domestic responsibilities. Stigma surrounding women working outside the home, along with early marriage and childbearing, further restrict their educational and employment opportunities. These cultural norms perpetuate cycles of poverty among women.
Legal and Institutional Barriers
Women in India often encounter legal and institutional obstacles that hinder their economic advancement. This includes inadequate property and inheritance rights, insufficient enforcement of laws designed to protect women’s rights, and limited access to financial services and credit. The lack of gender-sensitive policies in economic planning further marginalises women.
Health Issues
Health-related challenges disproportionately affect women, impacting their economic participation. Women face higher health risks and often have reduced access to healthcare services. Reproductive health issues can limit their ability to work, while malnutrition can diminish productivity.
Migration and Displacement
Migration can increase women’s vulnerability, especially in the absence of support systems. Displacement due to conflict or natural disasters often affects women more severely, and economic opportunities in urban areas do not always translate to improved living conditions.
Impact of Globalisation
Global economic changes can adversely affect sectors where women are primarily employed. Job losses in industries such as garment manufacturing and agriculture can lead to increased poverty rates among women. Exploitation in global supply chains further contributes to their economic marginalisation.
Violence and Discrimination
Gender-based violence remains barrier to women’s economic participation. Discrimination in hiring practices and workplace environments limits women’s opportunities. The psychological impacts of violence can hinder women’s ability to engage fully in the workforce.
Family Responsibilities
Women often bear the majority of caregiving responsibilities, which limits their ability to pursue paid employment. The absence of affordable childcare services constrains their work options, leading many to accept part-time or lower-paying jobs.
Economic Policies
Insufficient attention to gender-sensitive policies in economic planning contributes to the feminisation of poverty. There is a lack of support for women-owned businesses and entrepreneurship, alongside inadequate social safety nets for women living in poverty.
Key Statistics
Women constitute portion of the global poor, with estimates suggesting they represent approximately 70% of the world’s poor. In India, women’s labour force participation stands at around 25%, compared to 75% for men. The Global Gender Gap Report 2021 ranked India 140th out of 156 countries regarding gender parity.
Key Terms
Gender Pay Gap – The average difference in pay between men and women. Informal Employment – Jobs not regulated by the government, typically lacking benefits and job security. Gender-Based Violence – Violence directed at individuals based on their gender, disproportionately affecting women.
Questions for UPSC:
- Critically discuss the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the feminisation of poverty in India, denoting the socio-economic factors that contributed to the exacerbation of this issue.
- Examine the role of educational inequality in perpetuating the feminisation of poverty in India. Discuss the long-term implications of limited access to education for women.
- With suitable examples, discuss the relationship between gender-based violence and women’s economic participation in India, and the measures needed to address this issue.
- Analyze the effectiveness of existing legal frameworks in protecting women’s rights in India. What reforms are necessary to enhance women’s economic security and reduce the feminisation of poverty?
Answer Hints:
1. Critically discuss the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the feminisation of poverty in India, denoting the socio-economic factors that contributed to the exacerbation of this issue.
- The pandemic led to job losses, disproportionately affecting women employed in informal sectors.
- Increased caregiving responsibilities during lockdowns limited women’s ability to seek employment or education.
- Access to healthcare and social services diminished, worsening existing vulnerabilities among women.
- Economic downturns resulted in reduced household incomes, pushing more women into poverty.
- Social stigma and discrimination against women intensified, affecting their mental health and economic opportunities.
2. Examine the role of educational inequality in perpetuating the feminisation of poverty in India. Discuss the long-term implications of limited access to education for women.
- Educational inequality restricts women’s access to better-paying jobs, perpetuating low-income levels.
- Limited education contributes to a cycle of poverty, as uneducated women are less likely to invest in their children’s education.
- Women with inadequate education face barriers in accessing health services and legal rights.
- Long-term implications include increased vulnerability to exploitation and reduced economic independence.
- Educational disparities hinder women’s participation in decision-making processes, impacting policy development.
3. With suitable examples, discuss the relationship between gender-based violence and women’s economic participation in India, and the measures needed to address this issue.
- Gender-based violence limits women’s mobility, restricting their ability to participate in the workforce effectively.
- Examples include domestic violence leading to job loss or reduced work hours for women.
- Economic dependence on male partners increases vulnerability to violence, creating a vicious cycle.
- Measures needed include stronger legal protections, awareness campaigns, and support systems for victims.
- Empowering women economically can reduce their vulnerability to violence and enhance their decision-making power.
4. Analyze the effectiveness of existing legal frameworks in protecting women’s rights in India. What reforms are necessary to enhance women’s economic security and reduce the feminisation of poverty?
- Current legal frameworks, like the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, have limitations in enforcement and accessibility.
- Women often lack awareness of their rights, hindering the effectiveness of existing laws.
- Reforms needed include simplifying legal processes and increasing legal literacy among women.
- Strengthening implementation mechanisms and ensuring accountability for violations is crucial.
- Policies that promote women’s economic empowerment, such as access to credit and job training, can enhance economic security.
