The 19th century was a period of significant political and cultural changes in Europe. Among these changes was the rise of nationalism, a sentiment that played a crucial role in the unification processes of both Italy and Germany. This wave of nationalism was influenced by the romantic movement, which emphasized individualism and emotional expression, and it had profound effects on the political landscape of the time.
The Rise of Romantic Nationalism
Nationalism in the 19th century was fueled by the romantic movement, which saw the emergence of a deep connection between national identity and cultural expression. In Italy, the Resorgimento, or the Italian Resurrection, was a reflection of this newfound romantic nationalism. The movement aimed to consolidate the various states and provinces into a single nation-state defined by its common culture, language, and history.
In Germany, influential thinkers like Immanuel Kant, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel contributed to the development of a romantic form of nationalism. This Germanic version was considered to have more depth, partly due to later contributions by philosophers such as Friedrich Nietzsche (referred to here as Trietsche), who introduced a non-rational approach to reality and truth.
Unification of Italy
The desire for unification in Italy grew after the Congress of Vienna in 1815, which had reorganized the European political boundaries following the Napoleonic Wars. Italians were left disillusioned as their country was divided into several provinces under foreign control. The Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont, including Savoy, was the only Italian-ruled region. Austria annexed Lombardy and Venetia, and other Italian areas such as the two Sicilies—Naples and the Island of Sicily—were also under Austrian dominance. The central Papal States were governed by the Pope.
Despite the fragmented political situation, the spirit of nationalism and the desire for unification began to take root among Italians. Giuseppe Mazzini founded the nationalist group Young Italy in 1831, advocating for a unified Italian republic. In 1852, Count Camillo di Cavour, a leading figure in the movement for Italian unification, became the premier of Sardinia-Piedmont. With the support of the House of Savoy and King Victor Emmanuel II, Cavour embarked on a diplomatic and military campaign to unify Italy.
German Unification
Similar to Italy, Germany was also a patchwork of independent states before unification. The German Confederation created at the Congress of Vienna consisted of 39 sovereign states. The romantic nationalist movement in Germany, however, was more philosophically driven and had a significant intellectual backing. The writings of German philosophers and poets contributed to a burgeoning sense of national consciousness that eventually led to political action towards unification.
The unification of Germany was accomplished under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian Chancellor. Bismarck’s Realpolitik and a series of wars against Denmark, Austria, and France resulted in the consolidation of the German states under Prussian leadership. In 1871, the German Empire was proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, marking the culmination of German unification.
Questions for UPSC
1. How did the romantic movement influence the development of nationalism in 19th-century Europe, particularly in Italy and Germany?
2. What were the primary obstacles to Italian unification, and how were they overcome by figures such as Giuseppe Mazzini and Count Cavour?
3. In what ways did the political strategies of Otto von Bismarck differ from those of the Italian unification leaders, and what impact did these differences have on the process of nation-building in Germany?