The late 19th century Ottoman Empire witnessed significant political turmoil under the rule of Sultan Abdul Hamid II. His governance was characterized by a stringent hold on power amid growing demands for reform and nationalism. This period saw the rise of various movements, both within the empire and in exile, which aimed to challenge the autocratic rule of the Sultan.
Dismissal of Midhat and Public Apathy
Midhat Pasha, a notable Ottoman statesman who had briefly served as Grand Vizier and was a strong proponent of constitutional reforms, was dismissed from his position in Constantinople. This event, however, did not incite widespread public outrage or protests. The reaction was limited to a few placards posted on walls, indicating a level of public indifference or inability to resist the Sultan’s authority. This mass inertia allowed Abdul Hamid to maintain his unchallenged rule over the empire for the remainder of the century.
Abdul Hamid’s Tactics to Retain Power
Sultan Abdul Hamid II employed various strategies to consolidate his power and suppress dissent. He was particularly vigilant against the rising tides of nationalism and constitutionalism, which threatened the stability of his autocratic rule. To curb the influence of foreign ideas and prevent the spread of revolutionary thoughts, he restricted travel and study abroad for his subjects.
A vast network of informers was established to monitor the populace, and the press was heavily censored to control the flow of information. Periodically, the Sultan’s agents would uncover and target groups of dissidents, many of whom sought refuge in Paris. From there, these exiles would continue their opposition by publishing critical periodicals and pamphlets denouncing the Sultan’s autocratic regime.
The Emergence of the ‘Young Turk’ Movement
Among the groups opposing Abdul Hamid’s rule were the ‘Young Turks,’ a movement that gained traction in Western Europe. This group consisted of exiled Turkish intellectuals, revolutionaries, and leaders from various ethnic groups under the Ottoman rule, including Arabs, Greeks, Armenians, Albanians, Kurds, and Jews. The diversity of this group was reflective of the multi-ethnic composition of the empire.
In February 1902, representatives from these nationalities convened a congress in Paris. Their primary objective was to form a united front against the Sultan’s autocracy. However, unity was short-lived as they soon realized that their agreement extended only to their mutual disdain for the Sultan. When it came to other issues, there was significant discord. Some factions supported the idea of Turkish predominance and centralized rule, while others advocated for decentralization and granting more power to the subject peoples.
Military Officers and Steps Towards Reform
While the exiled intelligentsia engaged in ideological debates, reform-minded officers within the Turkish army began taking concrete actions to undermine the Sultan’s grip on the empire. These officers recognized the need for change and were prepared to take decisive steps towards achieving reform.
Questions for UPSC
1. How did Sultan Abdul Hamid II’s policies reflect the challenges posed by nationalism and constitutionalism to autocratic rulers during the late 19th century?
2. In what ways did the diverse composition of the ‘Young Turk’ movement both strengthen and weaken their cause against the Ottoman autocracy?
3. Considering the different agendas within the opposition, what were the potential challenges in forming a cohesive strategy to implement reforms in the Ottoman Empire?