In the late 19th century, the Qing Dynasty of China faced significant internal and external pressures that prompted a period of attempted reform and subsequent reactionary backlash. This era was marked by an intense struggle between modernizing forces and conservative elements within the Chinese government and society.
The Hundred Days Reform
In 1898, a group of Chinese reformers managed to convince the young Guangxu Emperor of the necessity for change. Influenced by their persuasive arguments, the emperor launched a bold initiative known as the ‘Hundred Days Reform.’ This ambitious program aimed to transform China by introducing sweeping changes across various sectors of society and governance. The reforms proposed the elimination of numerous unnecessary government positions, a move towards centralizing provincial governments under the control of the imperial court in Peking (Beijing), and the establishment of new schools to promote European learning and sciences.
Furthermore, the Hundred Days Reform sought to modernize China’s production methods by adopting Western industrial techniques and to strengthen the nation’s military by establishing a national conscript army modeled after Western militaries. These reforms represented a significant departure from the traditional Chinese policies that had been in place since the mid-19th century.
The Empress Dowager Cixi’s Coup
Despite the initial momentum of the Hundred Days Reform, the movement was short-lived. The Empress Dowager Cixi, a powerful conservative figure within the Qing court, opposed the rapid changes. With the support of the military, she staged a coup against the emperor, placing herself as the regent and effectively taking control of the government. She immediately rescinded all of the reform decrees and took harsh measures against those who had advocated for change, including the execution of six prominent reform leaders. This decisive action by the empress not only halted the reform movement but also reinforced the power of the conservative factions within the dynasty.
The Rise of Anti-Foreign Sentiment and the Boxer Rebellion
Following the collapse of the reform efforts, the reactionaries who now held sway over the Qing government redirected the social and political discontent towards foreign entities in China. Anti-foreign sentiment, which had been simmering due to unequal treaties and the presence of foreign powers, was exacerbated by the reactionary leadership. Secret societies, fueled by the anger and encouragement of court reactionaries and provincial governors, began to mobilize against the perceived foreign threat.
The most notable of these groups was the ‘I-Ho-Tuan,’ known to the Western world as the Boxers. This society, characterized by its martial arts practitioners and nationalistic fervor, received tacit support from the Qing authorities. In 1900, the Boxers started to launch violent attacks against foreigners and Chinese Christians in North China, leading to a significant loss of life and escalating tensions with foreign powers.
The situation reached a critical point when European naval forces landed at Tientsin (Tianjin) in response to the violence. The Boxers, emboldened by their cause, declared war on all foreigners in China and laid siege to the foreign legations in Peking. This event marked the beginning of the Boxer Rebellion, a conflict that would have far-reaching consequences for China and its relationship with the rest of the world.
Questions for UPSC
1. How did the Empress Dowager Cixi’s actions following the Hundred Days Reform impact the political stability of the Qing Dynasty?
2. What role did foreign influence and intervention play in the rise of anti-foreign sentiment and the subsequent Boxer Rebellion in China?
3. How might the success of the Hundred Days Reform have altered the course of Chinese history and its interactions with Western powers?