The history of European trade in China is marked by various attempts from different nations to establish a commercial presence. Among these, the English eventually emerged as prominent figures in the Far Eastern trade scene. This article explores the dynamics of European trade involvement in China, with a focus on the Spanish, Dutch, and English interactions, and the pivotal role of Canton in these historical exchanges.
Early European Attempts to Trade with China
The Spanish and Dutch were among the first Europeans to attempt to establish trade relations with China. Despite their efforts, they were unable to gain a strong foothold in the region. Their inability to deeply embed themselves within the Chinese trade networks contrasts with the success that the English would later achieve. The English first ventured into China in 1635, demonstrating a greater level of enterprise that would eventually position them as leaders in trade with the Far East by the 18th century.
European Trade Concentration in Canton
European traders were initially drawn to the southern coast of China, where they made contact with the Chinese Empire through Canton, also known as Guangzhou. The significance of Canton was due to its strategic location at the heart of the ‘pearl delta’, an area where three rivers converge to provide an extensive inland network for maritime commerce. An imperial edict in 1635 opened all coastal ports to foreign trade, but it was Canton’s advantageous position that made it the preferred destination for Western merchants.
The Monopoly of Canton in Foreign Trade
What started as a strategic choice for European traders became an enforced policy by the mid-18th century. In 1757, the Chinese Emperor decreed that Canton would be the only port open to foreign trade. This decision was intended to keep ‘Western Barbarians’ at a distance while still engaging in controlled trade. From that point until the end of the first Opium War, the system of trade that operated through Canton was referred to as the ‘Canton Trade’. Western merchants were kept under strict surveillance, and their activities were heavily regulated by the Chinese authorities.
Segregation of Foreign Merchants in Macao
Even within Canton, foreign merchants faced restrictions; they were confined to a small area known as Macao. This segregation was part of the Chinese strategy to manage foreign influence and maintain order. While some may view these restrictions as overly cautious or unwelcoming, it is essential to understand the context in which the Chinese authorities made such decisions. The aim was to protect the empire’s interests and sovereignty in the face of increasing foreign presence and potential interference.
Questions for UPSC
– What were the primary reasons behind the failure of the Spanish and Dutch to establish a lasting trade presence in China, unlike the English?
– How did the geographical features of the ‘pearl delta’ contribute to Canton becoming the epicenter of European trade in China?
– In what ways did the trade policies of the Chinese Empire towards Western merchants reflect the broader imperial attitudes towards foreign interaction and control?