Nationalism has been a driving force behind major historical events across Europe and the world. In the 19th century, it emerged as a defining factor in European history, later shaping global relations in the 20th century. Over time, the character of nationalism evolved significantly, starting as a movement rooted in the ideals of unity and brotherhood but gradually adopting a more aggressive and divisive stance influenced by social and political changes.
The Evolution of Nationalism in the 19th Century
Initially, nationalism in the 19th century was marked by a spirit of cooperation and mutual respect among various nationalist movements. The concept of the brotherhood of nations was prevalent, with the focus on achieving collective progress and understanding. However, as the century progressed, this benevolent form of nationalism began to wane. Influences such as social Darwinism, which promoted the idea of survival of the fittest in human societies, and the successful unification of Germany under Otto von Bismarck’s hardline policies, shifted the narrative towards chauvinism and militarism. Bismarck’s doctrine of “blood and iron” emphasized the use of military power and realpolitik to achieve national goals, setting a precedent for future nationalist endeavors.
Nationalist Movements Post-1815
The aftermath of the Congress of Vienna in 1815, which attempted to restore pre-Napoleonic order in Europe, left many ethnic groups and nationalities under foreign rule or disunited. This situation was a catalyst for nationalist uprisings throughout the continent. Notable examples include the Germans, Italians, Belgians, Norwegians, and various ethnic groups within the Hapsburg and Ottoman empires. The discontent arising from foreign domination and lack of national unity led to a succession of revolts.
Notable Nationalist Revolts and Unifications
One of the earliest successful nationalist revolts was that of the Greeks, who in 1821 began their fight for independence from the Ottoman Empire, ultimately securing their sovereignty. Similarly, the Belgians rose against Dutch rule in 1830, establishing their own independent state. Italy experienced a series of unsuccessful uprisings in 1820, 1830, and 1848; however, between 1859 and 1871, the Italians managed to unite and form an independent nation-state. Germany’s path to nationhood was marked by Prussian leadership, which after defeating Austria in 1866 and France in 1870-71, succeeded in forming the German Empire. These movements highlight the intense desire for self-determination and the lengths to which peoples would go to achieve national unity.
Impact of Nationalism on Foreign Rule and Disunity
The surge of nationalism had a profound impact on the political landscape of Europe. Millions of people who found themselves under foreign rule or without a unified nation became increasingly restless and driven to pursue independence or unification. The territorial settlements made by the Congress of Vienna did not take into account the ethnic and cultural identities of these populations, leading to widespread dissatisfaction and subsequent nationalist revolts. The desire for a national identity and the right to self-governance became powerful motivators for change, reshaping the map of Europe.
Questions for UPSC
1. How did the principles of social Darwinism influence the transformation of nationalist sentiment in the 19th century?
2. In what ways did the Congress of Vienna contribute to the rise of nationalist movements across Europe?
3. What role did military conflict play in the unification of Germany and Italy, and how did it set a precedent for future nationalist endeavors?