The late 19th and early 20th centuries were a period of significant economic and political changes in the world. Among the nations experiencing these shifts, Germany and the United States emerged as leading economic powers. However, the nature of their industrial revolutions and the political ramifications differed greatly. In Germany, industrial growth did not lead to an increase in liberal political movements as it did in other Western nations. Instead, the middle classes tended to side with the conservative government, leaving only a few parties to advocate for liberal or radical reforms.
Industrialization and Political Conservatism in Germany
In Germany, the rapid industrialization process was accompanied by the rise of a large and prosperous bourgeoisie. Contrary to what happened in other industrialized Western nations, this economic development did not result in a surge of liberal political ideals. The German middle classes, benefitting from the economic boom, found common ground with the conservative government rather than pushing for liberal changes. This alignment with conservatism meant that the political landscape remained relatively static, with only a few voices calling for change.
The Social Democratic Party, which primarily represented the working class, and the Progressive Party, made up of intellectuals, professionals, and small-business people, were the main proponents of liberal or radical reforms. Despite this, even the Social Democratic Party, which had become the largest party in the empire by 1914, could not resist the overwhelming wave of nationalism that arose during the international crises leading up to World War I.
Disintegration of Empires and the Rise of Nationalism
The era also witnessed the unraveling of multi-ethnic empires due to the forces of nationalism. The Austrian and Ottoman empires, in particular, began to disintegrate as nationalist sentiments intensified among various ethnic groups, often divided by language.
After Austria’s defeat by Prussia in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War, the German-speaking minority in Austria felt compelled to share power with the Magyars of Hungary, who were becoming increasingly assertive. The resulting Ausgleich, or Compromise of 1867, led to the creation of the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary. This complex political structure meant that while Austria and Hungary each had its own parliament, they shared a monarch from the Hapsburg dynasty and common ministries for war, finance, and foreign affairs. Additionally, joint delegations from both parliaments were responsible for coordinating policies between the two states wherever possible.
This arrangement, however, did little to quell the growing nationalist movements within the empire. Various ethnic groups sought greater autonomy or independence, undermining the stability of the Dual Monarchy. The spread of nationalist ideas was not contained within the empire’s borders but was part of a broader European phenomenon that would eventually contribute to the outbreak of World War I.
Questions for UPSC
1. How did the industrialization in Germany differ from that of other Western countries in terms of its impact on liberalism?
2. What were the consequences of the Ausgleich of 1867 for the internal politics of the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary?
3. In what ways did nationalism contribute to the disintegration of multi-ethnic empires in the late 19th and early 20th centuries?