At the turn of the 20th century, the world witnessed an unparalleled expansion of European empires. This period saw a rapid acquisition of territories and populations by major European powers. The expansion was so vast that it resulted in a small portion of the globe exerting dominance over much of the rest. This era was marked by the industrialized European nations not only owning large colonial territories but also exerting significant influence over economically and militarily weaker regions that were not formally colonized.
Imperial Expansion by Major Powers
Between 1871 and 1900, the British Empire grew substantially, adding approximately 4.25 million square miles and 66 million people to its domain. France, not far behind, expanded its territories by 3.5 million square miles and increased its population by 26 million. Russia, focusing on Asia, annexed an additional half a million square miles and incorporated 6.5 million people. Germany, a relatively new player in the imperial game at the time, acquired one million square miles and added 13 million people to its empire. Belgium, despite being a smaller nation, managed to gain control of 900,000 square miles and 8.5 million inhabitants.
Control Over Nominally Independent States
Aside from outright colonization, European powers had various ways of dominating regions that were nominally independent. China, the Ottoman Empire, and Persia, while maintaining a façade of sovereignty, were subjected to continuous interference. They were often humiliated and controlled through both direct and indirect means. These nations were not colonized but were heavily influenced by the European powers due to their economic and military weaknesses.
The Monroe Doctrine and Latin America
In Latin America, the European influence was economic rather than territorial due to the Monroe Doctrine. This American policy stated that further efforts by European nations to colonize land or interfere with states in North or South America would be viewed as acts of aggression, requiring U.S. intervention. However, this did not stop the United States from using military force to ‘restore law and order’ in the region, effectively making Latin America an economic appendage of the Great Powers through repeated armed interventions by the United States Marine Corps.
Russian Empire’s Unique Position
The Russian Empire presented a unique case. While it was economically dominated by Western Europe to a significant extent, the military strength of the tsarist regime was robust enough to prevent foreign economic influence from penetrating into other areas. This allowed Russia to maintain a greater degree of autonomy compared to other non-colonized states.
Questions for UPSC
1. How did the concept of sovereignty differ between the European colonial powers and the nominally independent states like China, the Ottoman Empire, and Persia during the late 19th century?
2. In what ways did the Monroe Doctrine shape the geopolitical dynamics between the European powers and the Americas, and how did it affect the United States’ own foreign policy?
3. Considering the extensive economic domination of the Russian Empire by Western Europe, what factors contributed to its ability to maintain a degree of military autonomy during this period?