The 19th century was a period of significant political upheaval in Europe. Two of the most notable events were the unification of Germany and Italy, which not only changed the political landscape of the continent but also had far-reaching implications for the future of European and world history.
The Rise of Prussia and Unification of Germany
The unification of Germany was a process marked by war, diplomacy, and the strategic brilliance of Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian Chancellor. In 1866, the Prussian army’s swift victory over Austria allowed Prussia to assert control over the Central German states, setting the stage for further expansion. France, under Emperor Napoleon III, perceived the growing power of Prussia as a threat and sought to curb its influence. An opportunity arose when a German prince was offered the Spanish throne, an event France aimed to prevent to avoid encirclement by Hohenzollern monarchs.
Bismarck, seizing the moment, edited the contents of the Ems Dispatch, a telegram exchanged between King Wilhelm I of Prussia and the French ambassador. His alterations were designed to offend both parties, inflaming tensions and precipitating the Franco-Prussian War. The conflict ended in a decisive Prussian victory, with the capture of Louis Napoleon and the subsequent fall of the Second French Empire.
In the aftermath of the war, the German states that had allied with Prussia united to proclaim King Wilhelm I as the German Emperor or Kaiser in 1871. This act solidified the unification of Germany under Prussian dominance. A new constitution was adopted, establishing a federal state with democratic elements such as a parliament, the Reichstag. However, the constitution granted substantial powers to the Kaiser and the Chancellor, ensuring that Bismarck and his successors would have a firm grip on the newly unified nation.
Italian Unification and the Resorgimento
Parallel to the events in Germany, Italy was undergoing its own transformation. The Italian unification, known as the Risorgimento, was driven by a surge in nationalism and a desire to consolidate the various Italian states into a single nation. Three primary ideologies competed for dominance: federalism, republicanism, and monarchism.
Giuseppe Mazzini, a passionate advocate for a unified republican Italy, led the republican movement. He envisioned a united Italy free from foreign rule and based on democratic principles. Meanwhile, Vincenzo Gioberti proposed a federation of Italian states under the presidency of the Pope, hoping that the spiritual authority of the papacy could serve as a unifying force.
The third and ultimately successful approach was the idea of a constitutional monarchy under the House of Savoy. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, ruled by the Savoyard monarchy, became the spearhead of the unification efforts. Under the leadership of Count Camillo di Cavour, Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, and with the military prowess of Giuseppe Garibaldi, the various Italian states were gradually annexed or joined the cause of unification.
The divergent views that had previously hindered the unification efforts were set aside as the goal of a united Italy took precedence. By 1870, with the capture of Rome and its incorporation into Italy, the unification was largely completed. The Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed, with Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy becoming the first king of a united Italy.
Questions for UPSC
1. How did Bismarck’s manipulation of the Ems Dispatch contribute to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War?
2. What were the main ideological differences between the leaders of the Italian unification movement, and how were they resolved?
3. In what ways did the unifications of Germany and Italy alter the balance of power in Europe during the late 19th century?