The mid-19th century was a period of significant tension and conflict between Western powers and the Qing Dynasty in China. This era was marked by the struggle of foreign entities to resolve their commercial disputes, the demands of Western merchants and Christian missionaries for freedoms within Chinese territory, and the insistence on improved diplomatic relations. These issues, among others, contributed to the outbreak of the Second Opium War, a conflict that further shaped the course of East-West relations.
Contributory Factors to the Second Opium War
Foreign traders and Christian missionaries in China faced numerous obstacles in their endeavors, which played a role in escalating tensions leading to war. Western merchants were frustrated with their limited ability to trade and move freely within China. They sought the right to travel without restrictions and to conduct business across the country. Alongside the merchants, Christian missionaries demanded legal protection to practice and propagate their faith, as well as assurances of tolerance for Chinese converts to Christianity.
The Westerners also pushed for more substantial diplomatic representation with the Chinese government. They believed that having adequate representation would help address their grievances and protect their interests within China. The lack of progress on these fronts contributed to the growing dissatisfaction among foreign powers regarding their relationships with China.
The ‘Lorcha Arrow’ Incident: The Immediate Cause
While the underlying issues simmered, it was the ‘Lorcha Arrow’ incident in 1856 that ignited the conflict known as the Second Opium War. The ‘Lorcha Arrow’ was a vessel owned by Chinese nationals but registered in Hong Kong, a British colony. The Chinese authorities seized the ship on allegations of involvement in illegal trade activities. The British government, interpreting this action as an affront to British sovereignty and national honor, demanded full reparation from China.
The Chinese Viceroy of Canton (now Guangzhou) refused the British demands, further inflaming the situation. This refusal was seen by the British as an outright rejection of their authority and an insult that could not be tolerated, setting the stage for military confrontation.
French Involvement in the War
The conflict was not limited to British and Chinese forces. The French had their own reasons for engaging in hostilities against China. During the disturbances in Canton in 1856–57, a French Catholic missionary named Abbe Chapdelaine was executed by Chinese officials. The French government viewed this as a “judicial murder” and a grievous violation of their rights, providing the impetus for France to join Britain in the war against China.
The combined forces of Britain and France, driven by their respective grievances and strategic interests, presented a formidable challenge to the Qing Dynasty, which was already grappling with internal strife and the pressures of modernization.
Questions for UPSC
1. How did the demands of Western merchants and missionaries contribute to the deterioration of Sino-foreign relations prior to the Second Opium War?
2. In what ways did the ‘Lorcha Arrow’ incident serve as a catalyst for the escalation of the Second Opium War?
3. What role did France play in the Second Opium War, and how did their motivations differ from those of the British?