The Treaty of Nanking, signed in 1842, marked the end of the First Opium War between China and Britain but failed to resolve underlying tensions. European powers continued to press China for further concessions to expand trade opportunities, while China grew increasingly uncomfortable with the privileges already granted to foreigners. This persistent dissatisfaction set the stage for renewed conflict.
Outbreak of the Second Opium War
The Second Opium War, also known as the Arrow War, erupted in 1856 when Chinese officials detained the Chinese crew of a ship, the Arrow, which was registered under the British flag. The British demanded the release of the crew, but the Chinese government in Peking (now Beijing) refused. In retaliation, British forces bombarded the city of Canton (Guangzhou), igniting the war.
France joined Britain in the conflict, citing the murder of a French missionary as justification for their involvement. The Anglo-French alliance proved too powerful for the Chinese forces, leading to significant defeats for China.
The Tientsin Treaties
In June 1858, amidst the ongoing hostilities, China was compelled to sign the Tientsin Treaties with Britain, France, the United States, and Russia. These treaties expanded upon the concessions extracted from China in the Treaty of Nanking. However, the Chinese government was reluctant to implement the terms of the Tientsin Treaties, which led to a resurgence of military actions by the British and French forces.
The Peking Convention
The renewed offensive by the Anglo-French coalition culminated in the capture of the Chinese capital. Under duress, China agreed to the terms of the Peking Convention in 1860. This agreement, along with the Tientsin Treaties, resulted in even more Chinese ports being opened to foreign trade. They also extended the principle of extraterritoriality, which meant that foreigners in China were subject to their own countries’ laws rather than Chinese law, and allowed for the establishment of foreign diplomatic legations in the capital and Christian missionary activities throughout China.
Defeat by Japan
China’s troubles were not confined to conflicts with Western powers. The country also faced challenges from its East Asian neighbor, Japan. In a display of emerging strength, Japan, a relatively small kingdom at the time, inflicted a third and highly humiliating defeat on China. This defeat further underscored China’s weakening position in the region and the growing might of Japan.
Questions for UPSC
– How did the Treaty of Nanking fail to address the root causes of conflict between China and European powers, leading to the Second Opium War?
– What were the implications of the extension of extraterritorial rights and the opening of additional ports as stipulated in the Tientsin Treaties and the Peking Convention for China’s sovereignty?
– In what ways did the defeat by Japan signify a shift in power dynamics in East Asia, and how did it reflect on China’s internal and external challenges during that period?