The mid-19th century was a tumultuous period for China as it grappled with internal strife and foreign pressures. One significant event that unfolded during this era involved a covert infiltration by an individual into the heart of China, an action that eventually sparked international conflict and led to a series of treaties that would reshape the country’s foreign relations.
Infiltration and Murder
An unnamed individual had managed to enter deep into China without the consent or awareness of the Chinese authorities. Initially received without hostility, the situation deteriorated rapidly when he was seized and killed on the orders of a local Chinese magistrate. This incident marked the beginning of a series of events that would lead to increased foreign intervention in China.
French and English Military Response
The French, failing to secure compensation or reparation for the murder, decided to form an alliance with the English. Together, they launched a second assault and subsequent occupation of Canton (Guangzhou). Their combined military prowess, both on land and at sea, compelled China to seek peace. The year 1858 became a turning point as China, weakened by continuous military defeats, was forced to negotiate with the foreign powers.
European Powers Demand Concessions
Observing China’s vulnerable state, other European nations quickly moved to exploit the situation. They demanded concessions similar to those expected to be granted to the British and French. This collective pressure from multiple fronts left China with little room to maneuver, leading to a series of agreements that would have far-reaching implications.
The Treaties of Tientsin
In June 1858, China signed what came to be known as the Treaties of Tientsin with four separate entities: Britain, France, the United States, and Russia. These treaties were a direct result of the military successes of the British and French and the subsequent demands by other European countries. The treaties marked a significant shift in China’s interactions with the West and set the stage for further incursions into Chinese sovereignty.
Key Provisions of the British Treaty of Tientsin
The British Treaty of Tientsin contained several important provisions that would impact China’s future:
1. **Expansion of Port Access:** China agreed to open ten additional ports to British trade, which significantly increased foreign commercial presence in the nation.
2. **British Diplomatic Presence:** The right to station a British Resident Minister at the court of Peking (Beijing) was established, signifying a formal diplomatic recognition and influence within the Chinese government.
3. **Christianity Tolerance:** A guarantee was made for the toleration of Christianity within China. This clause not only facilitated British merchants but also allowed missionaries to propagate their religious beliefs freely throughout the empire.
4. **Tariff Revisions:** Provisions were also made for the revision of tariff schedules, mainly favoring foreign interests. These revisions were aimed at reducing barriers and increasing profitability for foreign traders operating in China.
The aftermath of these treaties saw China’s sovereignty eroded and its policies increasingly dictated by foreign powers. The Treaties of Tientsin symbolize a period where China was subjected to unequal treaties that favored Western interests and contributed to the notion of the “Century of Humiliation” in Chinese history.
Questions for UPSC
1. How did the murder of an individual by a Chinese magistrate serve as a catalyst for the Second Opium War?
2. In what ways did the Treaties of Tientsin alter the balance of power between China and the Western powers?
3. What were the long-term implications of the toleration of Christianity clause in the British Treaty of Tientsin on Chinese society and its traditional belief systems?