In a recent report entitled ‘Mind the Gap: The State of Employment in India’, Oxfam India presents an in-depth evaluation of employment disparities in India. These discrepancies are examined in the context of factors such as gender, caste, and class.
Pay Levels
According to the 2015 data, 92% of women and 82% of men were earning less than Rs.10,000 per month. This figure falls significantly below the Seventh Central Pay Commission (2013) recommendation of a monthly wage of Rs.18,000.
Wage Gap
The report discloses that women, on an average, are paid 34% less than their male counterparts who have similar qualifications and perform the exact same tasks. More specifically, National Sample Survey Office (2011-12) data reveals that women in urban areas who earn a regular salary were paid Rs.105 and Rs.123 less than men daily in rural regions. Casual workers in urban and rural areas were also paid Rs.72 and Rs.47 less than men, respectively.
The Over-representation of Women in Unpaid Care Work
If one considers unpaid care and household activities as part of the definition of work, the Female Labour Force Participation Rate (FLFPR) in 2011-12 would have risen from 20.5% to 81.7%, surpassing men’s participation rates.
Divergences in FLFPR: The Impact of Social Identity
Job concentration varies among different social sectors. For example, Muslim women are primarily found in household manufacturing, Scheduled Caste (SCs) in construction and waste collection services whereas non-SCs typically work in education and health services. Meanwhile, agriculture, where women are often subjected to low-wage work, employs 75% of rural women.
The Role of Marriage and Geography
Marriage appears to impact women’s employment choices, with nearly half (49.5%) of married women workers working in the same industry as their husbands. Furthermore, geographical regions also play a role: a greater number of women are found working in Southern and North-Eastern States, but these numbers still lag behind international standards.
Causes behind Employment Inequality in India
The lack of quality jobs and wage disparity are the main contributors to inequality in the Indian labour market. Other factors include the burden of unpaid care work and the persistence of regressive social norms, both of which inhibit women’s participation in the workforce.
| Urban Women | Rural Women | |
|---|---|---|
| Regular Salary | Rs.105 less than men daily | Rs.123 less than men daily |
| Casual Workers | Rs.72 less than men daily | Rs.47 less than men daily |
Recommendations for Improvement
To achieve equality in employment, Oxfam India suggests a shift in developmental focus towards labour-intensive sectors to generate more job opportunities. Additionally, it recommends the creation of secure jobs with better working conditions. This includes providing workers with social security benefits and the right to organise. To further improve productivity, substantial investments in the health and education sectors are required as they are potential large-scale employment generators in the future.
About Oxfam India
Registered as a non-profit under Section 8 of the Indian Companies Act, 2013, Oxfam India is a branch of Oxfam International. The organisation strives to create an equal, just, and sustainable society by empowering the underprivileged.
About National Sample Survey Office (NSSO)
Operating under the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI), the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) is tasked with conducting large-scale sample surveys in diverse fields on an all-India basis. It comprises four divisions that handle survey design, field operations, data processing, and coordination and publication activities.