After Harsha’s death in 647 CE, his vast empire disintegrated rapidly. Northern India fragmented into numerous smaller kingdoms. This period marked the rise of feudalism, which had its roots in the earlier Gupta period. Military governorships were granted to influential chiefs, leading to a decentralised political structure. The king’s authority diminished as vassals gained power.
Rise of Feudalism
Feudalism became a prominent feature in Northern India during this era. Influential scholars like R.S. Sharma and B.P. Mazumdar have extensively studied this phenomenon. Feudal lords, known as samantas, were granted land by rulers in exchange for military support. These vassals exercised considerable autonomy in their territories, further fragmenting political power.
Weak Central Authority
The political power of kings weakened . The decentralisation of authority led to ineffective governance. Samantas often operated independently, creating their own rules. The king’s role became nominal, focusing more on regional conflicts than on administration.
Military Inefficiency
The military system of Indian rulers was outdated. While the Turks developed a well-trained standing army, Indian armies relied on feudal contingents. This lack of cohesion hindered effective military responses to invasions. The neglect of cavalry further weakened military capabilities.
Social Hierarchy and Class Division
Indian society during this period was starkly divided into exploiters and the exploited. The ruling class controlled land and resources, living in luxury, while the majority faced poverty. The caste system played important role in social stratification.
Evolution of the Caste System
Initially, the caste system was more flexible. However, by the early medieval period, it became rigid, particularly affecting lower castes. Upper castes sought to reinforce their dominance, leading to social unrest and movements against the oppressive structure.
Brahmins’ Ascendance
Brahmins emerged as the dominant class post-Harsha. They benefited from the feudal system, gaining economic power and religious authority. Their influence grew as they provided legitimacy to the ruling class, further entrenching the caste system.
Kshatriyas and Warfare
Kshatriyas, the warrior class, were primarily landowners and rulers. Their culture glorified warfare, leading to continuous conflicts. This focus on military honour often resulted in reckless battles, weakening their overall power.
Decline of Vaishyas
The Vaishyas, traditionally the merchant class, faced a decline in status. The rise of feudalism and Brahmanical dominance diminished their economic power and social standing. They increasingly found themselves equated with lower castes.
Plight of Sudras
Sudras, the lowest caste, comprised agricultural labourers and artisans. They endured harsh living conditions and were often denied education. Despite occasional uprisings, their plight remained dire, with little opportunity for social mobility.
Antyajas and Untouchables
The Antyajas, or untouchables, faced the harshest discrimination. They were excluded from the caste system and relegated to menial jobs. Their existence was marked by social ostracism and severe restrictions, leading to a life of misery.
Social Organisation and Its Impacts
The caste-based social organisation created an insular society. This narrow outlook stifled intellectual growth and encourageed superstition. The rigid hierarchy resulted in widespread social injustice and discontent among the lower classes.
Economic Structure of the Period
The economy was characterised by a self-sufficient village system. Production largely catered to local needs, with little emphasis on broader market engagement. Feudalism further entrenched economic disparities.
Feudalisation of Land
The feudalisation of land began in the Gupta period and intensified during Harsha’s reign. Land was controlled by feudal lords who exploited peasants for their resources. This created a class of landowners who dictated the economic conditions of the time.
Decline in Trade and Commerce
Trade and commerce suffered due to the self-sufficient village economy and feudal restrictions. Smaller merchants faced numerous obstacles, leading to a decline in economic activity. Political instability further exacerbated these challenges.
Dynasties of Early Medieval India
The period saw the rise and fall of several dynasties. Each played role in shaping the political landscape of India. Notable dynasties included the Brahmanshahis, Pratiharas, Gahadwalas, and others.
Brahmanshahis and Their Resistance
The Brahmanshahis ruled Gandhara and resisted Turkish invasions under leaders like Anandpal. Their bravery is noted in historical accounts, although they ultimately succumbed to Mahmud of Ghazni’s forces.
The Pratiharas’ Decline
The Pratiharas, under Mihir Bhoj, experienced territorial expansion. However, internal crises and external pressures led to their decline, culminating in defeat by Mahmud of Ghazni.
Gahadwalas and Their Fate
The Gahadwalas rose in the late 11th century. Their last ruler, Jai Chand, faced defeat by Muhammad Ghuri. The battle of Chandwar marked the end of their power.
Chandellas and Their Resilience
The Chandellas, known for their architectural achievements, attempted to resist Turkish invasions. However, their kingdom faced challenges from both neighbouring rulers and invading forces.
Tomaras and Their Struggles
The Tomaras of Delhi resisted Turkish advances but faced internal strife. Their eventual decline led to dependency on the Chauhans, paving the way for further invasions.
Chauhans and Turkish Conflicts
The Chauhans were prominent opponents of Turkish incursions. Prithviraja III’s victories were notable, but his eventual defeat at Tarain marked a turning point for the dynasty.
Chalukyas and Their Defence
The Chalukyas of Gujarat played important role in resisting Turkish invasions. Their internal challenges, however, weakened their position over time.
Paramaras and Their Legacy
The Paramaras of Malwa, notable for their cultural contributions, faced continuous warfare. Their decline followed Bhoja’s reign, leading to eventual annexation by the Khaljis.
Kalachuris and Regional Conflicts
The Kalachuris were involved in regional power struggles. Their efforts to resist Turkish invasions brought into light the ongoing conflicts of the period.
Chola Kingdom’s Zenith
The Chola dynasty in Southern India thrived under rulers like Rajaraja. Their expansionist policies marked phase in South Indian history, although internal disintegration followed.
Western Chalukyas and Rivalries
The Western Chalukyas engaged in constant conflict with the Cholas. Their powerful rulers expanded territories but faced eventual decline due to internal and external pressures.
