Groundwater is a “hidden” but vital resource, accounting for over 60% of total irrigation and 85% of rural drinking water supply in India. With an annual extraction of approximately 239 Billion Cubic Meters (BCM), India is the world’s largest consumer of groundwater, extracting more than the US and China combined.
Assessment of Groundwater Potential
The Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) periodically assesses the Dynamic Ground Water Resources. The assessment is based on the Annual Extractable Ground Water Resource versus the Annual Ground Water Extraction.
| Feature | Details |
| Total Annual Ground Water Recharge | Approximately 449 BCM |
| Annual Extractable Ground Water Resource | Approximately 407 BCM |
| Current Annual Ground Water Extraction | Approximately 239 BCM |
| Stage of Ground Water Extraction | 59.23% (National Average) |
Categorization of Ground Water Units
Based on the “Stage of Extraction” (Ratio of utilization to availability), assessment units (blocks/talukas) are classified as follows:
- Safe: Extraction < 70%.
- Semi-Critical: Extraction between 70% and 90%.
- Critical: Extraction between 90% and 100%.
- Over-Exploited: Extraction > 100% (Water is being extracted faster than it is recharged).
Regional Variations and Crisis Hotspots
The groundwater crisis in India is not uniform but concentrated in specific agro-economic zones.
- North-Western India: Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan show extraction rates exceeding 100%. In Punjab, nearly 76% of assessment units are “Over-Exploited” due to the wheat-paddy monoculture.
- Western India: Parts of Gujarat and Rajasthan face salinity and deep-seated depletion.
- Peninsular India: States like Karnataka and Tamil Nadu face depletion in hard-rock aquifers where recharge rates are naturally slow.
- Eastern India: Generally “Safe” with high recharge potential (Ganga-Brahmaputra basin) but suffers from high Arsenic and Fluoride contamination.
Drivers of Groundwater Depletion
- Electricity Subsidies: Provision of free or highly subsidized power for agriculture encourages indiscriminate pumping via tubewells.
- Minimum Support Price (MSP) Policy: Incentivizes water-intensive crops (Rice and Sugarcane) in semi-arid regions where they are not ecologically suitable.
- Green Revolution Legacy: The shift from traditional dryland crops (millets) to high-yielding varieties necessitated intensive groundwater use.
- Inadequate Legal Framework: Under common law, groundwater is attached to land ownership, allowing landowners to extract unlimited water from under their property.
Key Government Interventions and Schemes
Atal Bhujal Yojana (ABHY)
A Central Sector Scheme with World Bank assistance ($6,000$ Crore) focused on community-led sustainable groundwater management in seven water-stressed states (Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, MP, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and UP).
PM-KUSUM (Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan)
Aims to provide energy security to farmers by installing solar pumps. It includes a component for solarizing existing grid-connected pumps, allowing farmers to sell surplus power, which indirectly incentivizes them to save water.
National Aquifer Mapping and Management Programme (NAQUIM)
Implemented by the CGWB, this project aims to map India’s aquifers at a 1:50,000 scale to facilitate decentralized “Aquifer Management Plans.”
Model Bill for Ground Water Management
The Ministry of Jal Shakti has circulated a Model Bill to States/UTs to enable the regulation of groundwater, focusing on “Public Trust Doctrine” rather than absolute ownership.
Water Quality Challenges
Apart from quantity, quality degradation is a major economic and health concern.
- Arsenic: Predominant in the Ganga-Brahmaputra alluvial plains (West Bengal, Bihar, UP).
- Fluoride: Widely prevalent in Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.
- Salinity: Increasing in coastal aquifers due to “Seawater Intrusion” caused by over-pumping near the shores.
- Nitrate Contamination: Linked to the excessive use of chemical fertilizers (Urea) in Punjab and Haryana.
Facts and Trivia for UPSC Prelims
- Largest User: India extracts 25% of the global groundwater.
- State with Highest Extraction: Punjab (163% of its annual recharge).
- Leading State in Recharge Capacity: Uttar Pradesh (highest annual extractable resource).
- Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA): Established under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, to regulate and control groundwater development.
- Virtual Water Export: India effectively exports billions of liters of groundwater annually through the export of water-intensive crops like Basmati rice and sugar.
- Mihir Shah Committee: Recommended a shift from “supply-side” management to “demand-side” management and the creation of a National Water Commission.