Indian Feudalism – Concepts, Developments and Impacts

Indian feudalism refers to the socio-economic and political system that emerged in India, particularly between the 7th and 12th centuries. It was shaped by various factors, including foreign invasions, land grants, and regional dynamics. The system varied across regions, influenced by local customs and power structures.

Key Scholars and Theories

D. Kausambi was the first Marxist scholar to analyse Indian feudalism. He introduced the concepts of ‘feudalism from above’ and ‘feudalism from below’. The former describes the hierarchy between kings and their vassals, while the latter addresses the emergence of local intermediaries due to land grants.

R. S. Sharma later challenged Kausambi’s bifurcation. In his work “Indian Feudalism”, Sharma argued that land grants were very important in shaping the socio-economic landscape. He linked feudalism to the decline of trade and the emergence of local power structures.

Contrasting Sharma, historians like B. C. Sarkar and B. D. Chattopadhyay critiqued his views. Sarkar argued that Sharma conflated landlords with feudal lords. Chattopadhyay emphasised that trade and urbanisation did not decline but transformed.

Factors Contributing to Feudalism

Several factors contributed to the rise of feudalism in India:

1. Dharma Vijaya: This principle allowed defeated kings to retain power as vassals, creating a hierarchical structure.
2. External Invasions: Invasions by the Huns and Turks led to political fragmentation.
3. Land Grants: Land was granted to Brahmins, military leaders, and temples, encouraging feudal relations.
4. Trade Decline: A decline in trade and commerce in certain areas shifted power dynamics.

Features of Indian Feudalism

Indian feudalism exhibited several distinct features:

1. Political Fragmentation: Numerous subordinate kings emerged, often leading to a lack of central authority.
2. Intermediaries: Local rulers acted as intermediaries between kings and cultivators.
3. Overlord Relationships: Overlords extracted agricultural surplus from peasant cultivators.
4. Temple Landlordism: Temples and monasteries also held land and exercised power.
5. Peasant Ties: In some cases, peasants were tied to the land, leading to the Jajmani system.
6. Subinfeudation: Feudal lords often granted portions of their lands to subordinate chiefs.
7. Military Obligations: Many grantees had duties to provide military service.
8. Art and Religion: Feudal consciousness influenced contemporary art and religious practices.

Differences Between Indian and European Feudalism

While both systems shared similarities, key differences exist:

1. Absence of Serfdom: Unlike Europe, serfdom was not a characteristic of Indian feudalism.
2. Economic Foundations: Indian feudalism was not rooted in a slave-based economy.
3. Caste System: Indian feudalism was closely intertwined with the caste system, affecting social dynamics.

Political Developments in North India

The political landscape of North India post-Harshavardhana’s reign (circa 642 CE) was marked by fragmentation. Numerous principalities emerged, leading to a decline in central authority. The rise of feudalism undermined traditional kingship. Several factors contributed to this fragmentation:

1. New Villages: Land grants led to the establishment of new villages and intermediaries.
2. Vassal Relationships: Conquests reinstated smaller chiefs as vassals, creating hierarchical claims over resources.
3. Military Services: Feudal lords maintained armies, increasing their power and influence.
4. Land Grants: Grants to Brahmins and military leaders encourageed feudal structures.
5. Local Trade Management: Self-sufficient villages managed local trade, furthering fragmentation.

Feudalism During the Medieval Period

The medieval period saw the institutionalisation of feudalism, especially under the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire. Land was granted as jagirs or iqta in exchange for military service. Jagirdars controlled lands and collected revenues from peasants. Regional variations existed, such as:

1. Deccan Region: The Deshmukhs and Deshpandes served as local intermediaries.
2. Rajput Kingdoms: Nobility, known as Thakurs or Rajputs, received land grants.

Decline of Feudalism

Feudalism began to decline with British colonial rule in the 18th century. The British introduced land reforms, altering land ownership and revenue collection. The Permanent Settlement and Ryotwari systems changed traditional practices. The Indian Rebellion of 1857 reflected discontent among feudal lords facing eroded privileges. Following independence in 1947, land reforms aimed to abolish feudal structures and redistribute land to the landless.

Impact of Feudalism on Society

Feudalism affected Indian society. Key impacts included:

1. Economic Exploitation: Feudal lords extracted surplus from peasants, leading to impoverishment.
2. Cultural Patronage: Feudal lords supported the arts, leading to regional architectural developments.
3. Political Power: Local rulers maintained armies and exercised authority, contributing to political fragmentation.
4. Resistance Movements: Oppression often sparked resistance among the peasantry against feudal lords.

Legacy of Feudalism

While formal feudalism largely declined due to reforms, remnants persist. Local elites and landlords still influence landownership patterns and social hierarchies. The historical legacy of feudalism continues to shape economic disparities in various regions of India.