The early medieval period (750-1000 CE) in Northern India was characterised by the dominance of three major political powers – the Gurjara-Pratiharas, the Palas, and the Rashtrakutas. These kingdoms were engaged in constant conflicts, notably the tripartite struggle for control over the Gangetic region.
Gurjara-Pratiharas
The Gurjara-Pratiharas emerged as force in western India and the Upper Gangetic plains. They were originally pastoralists and warriors, with legendary figures like Lakshmana inspiring their identity. Harichandra founded the dynasty in Jodhpur around the 8th century.
Key Rulers of Gurjara-Pratiharas
- Nagabhata I (c. 730-760 CE)
- Resisted Arab invasions effectively.
- Ruled over Gujarat, Rajputana, and Malwa.
- Vatsaraja (c. 780-800 CE)
- Made Kannauj his capital.
- Expanded territory, initiating the tripartite struggle.
- Bhoja I/Mihir Bhoja (c. 836-885 CE)
- Regarded as the most popular Pratihara ruler.
- Promoted Vaishnavism and acknowledged by various regional powers.
- Mahendrapala (c. 885-910 CE)
- Expanded the empire .
- Adopted the title “Maharajadhiraja of Aryavarta”.
- Rajyapala (c. 960-1018 CE)
- Faced defeats against Rashtrakutas and Ghaznavids.
Decline of the Gurjara-Pratiharas
By the 11th century, the Gurjara-Pratiharas faced decline. Their territory shrank as local rulers gained independence. The Ghaznavid invasions further diminished their power, leading to the rise of local dynasties.
Palas of Bengal
The Pala dynasty was established in the late 8th century by Gopala. The rulers primarily embraced Mahayana Buddhism and played important role in promoting Buddhist culture.
Key Rulers of the Pala Dynasty
- Gopala (c. 750 CE)
- Founded the Pala dynasty by displacing earlier rulers.
- Established the Odantapuri monastery.
- Dharmapala (c. 770-810 CE)
- Expanded the Pala empire .
- Founded Vikramshila and Somapuri monasteries.
- Devapala (c. 810-850 CE)
- Claimed tribute from various regions, extending influence.
- Mahapala I (c. 977-1027 CE)
- Revived the Pala dynasty but faced Chola invasions.
Decline of the Palas
The Pala dynasty weakened in the late 9th century. By the 12th century, it faced destruction from the Sena dynasty, marking the end of Buddhist influence in the region.
Rashtrakutas
The Rashtrakutas rose to prominence in the Deccan around 753 CE. They were initially feudatories of the Chalukyas and established their capital at Manyakheta.
Key Rulers of Rashtrakutas
- Dantidurga (c. 733-756 CE)
- Defeated the Chalukyas and established dominance in the Deccan.
- Govind III (c. 793-814 CE)
- Expanded the empire .
- Fought against both Palas and Pratiharas.
- Amoghavarsha I (c. 815-880 CE)
- Patronised literature and arts.
- Known for his peace-oriented policies.
Decline of the Rashtrakutas
The decline began in the late 10th century. Their capital was attacked in 972 CE, leading to fragmentation and loss of power.
Administration
The administration of these kingdoms mirrored earlier models, with a king at the helm. Key officials included ministers for revenue, foreign affairs, and military matters.
Administrative Structure
- Rashtra – Supervised by a Rashtrapati.
- Bhukti – Governed by Uparika.
- Mandalas/Visaya – Managed by Visyapati.
- Pattala – Headed by Bhojpati.
Military Organisation
All three kingdoms maintained well-organised military forces. The Pratiharas were known for their cavalry, while the Palas had a strong elephant corps. The Rashtrakutas built numerous forts.
Trade and Commerce
Trade in Northern India faced decline due to the fall of the Roman Empire and the Sassanid Empire. This reduced the influx of gold and silver coins.
Regional Trade
Despite the decline in Northern trade, South Indian commerce flourished, particularly with Southeast Asia. Arab merchants established connections, reviving trade towards the end of the period.
Emergence of New Dynasties
During this period, new local dynasties emerged. The Salamba dynasty in Assam arose around 800 CE under Harjaravarman, while the Eastern Gangas expanded their influence in Orissa.
Eastern Gangas
The Eastern Gangas, originally from Karnataka, took control of Orissa in the 8th century. They allied with the Cholas, expanding their military reach.
Military Conflicts
The Eastern Gangas frequently clashed with the Cholas, particularly under King Anantavarman Chodaganga, who sought to consolidate power in the region.
Religious Landscape
The period saw a blend of religious practices. Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism coexisted, with kings patronising various faiths. The Rashtrakutas were notably tolerant towards Islam.
Political Shift
By the end of the 11th century, the political landscape of Northern India had transformed. The rise of regional powers and the decline of the major dynasties marked shift in the history of the region.
