Ancient India has left a wealth of material remains. Stone temples in South India and brick monasteries in Eastern India showcase the architectural prowess of the time. However, most remains lie buried in mounds across the country. Excavations have revealed only a fraction of the material culture, offering glimpses into ancient life.
Excavation Techniques
Excavations primarily occur through vertical digging, providing a chronological sequence of material culture. Horizontal excavations are rare due to high costs. This limitation means that many excavated sites do not present a complete picture of life in ancient India.
Preservation Conditions
The state of preservation of ancient remains varies by region. In the dry climates of Western Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan, artefacts are better preserved. Conversely, in the humid conditions of the Middle Gangetic basin, iron tools corrode, and mud structures are difficult to detect. Significant remains are typically found in burnt brick or stone structures.
Ancient Settlements
Excavations have uncovered cities established around 2500 B.C. in northwestern India, revealing aspects of material culture in the Gangetic basin. Findings illustrate settlement layouts, pottery types, housing forms, food sources, and tools used by the inhabitants.
Megaliths and Burial Practices
In South India, people buried their belongings, including tools and pottery, alongside the dead. These burial sites, known as megaliths, provide vital information about life in the Deccan region from the Iron Age onwards. Archaeology, the science of systematically excavating old mounds, helps us understand these ancient practices.
Scientific Examination of Artefacts
Artefacts recovered from excavations undergo various scientific analyses. Radiocarbon dating establishes their age. Pollen analysis reveals historical climate and vegetation, suggesting agriculture was practised in Rajasthan and Kashmir as early as 6000 B.C. Studies of metal artefacts identify sources and technological advancements, while examinations of animal bones indicate domestication and usage.
Coins in Ancient India
The study of ancient coins, known as numismatics, reveals much about economic history. Coins were primarily made of metals like copper, silver, and gold. Paper currency emerged much later, around the fourteenth century. Coin moulds, especially from the Kushan period, indicate a sophisticated monetary system.
Storage and Hoarding of Coins
In ancient times, without a modern banking system, people stored coins in earthenware or brass vessels. Hoards discovered in various regions contain Indian and foreign coins, including those from the Roman Empire. These hoards are preserved in museums across India and abroad.
Cataloguing Coins
Many Indian coins are housed in museums in Calcutta, Patna, Lucknow, Delhi, Jaipur, Bombay, and Madras. Collections from Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Afghanistan also include Indian coins. British officials during colonial rule transferred numerous coins to collections in Britain. Catalogues exist for many dynasties, but many coins remain uncatalogued.
Evolution of Coins
Early coins featured simple symbols. Later coins included the names of kings, deities, or dates, indicating their circulation regions. This information aids in reconstructing the histories of various ruling dynasties, especially the Indo-Greeks.
Trade and Commerce
Coins illuminate the economic landscape of ancient India. Some coins were issued by merchant guilds, indicating the importance of crafts and commerce. The post-Maurya period saw a surge in coin production, especially gold coins from the Gupta era, suggesting flourishing trade. However, a decline in post-Gupta times is evident from the scarcity of coins.
Importance of Inscriptions
Inscriptions, more important than coins, are studied through epigraphy. They were carved on various mediums, including seals, stone pillars, and copper plates. The earliest inscriptions date back to the third century B.C., primarily in Prakrit, with Sanskrit becoming prevalent by the second century A.D.
Preservation of Inscriptions
Inscriptions are preserved in various museums, with the largest collection in the office of the Chief Epigraphist in Mysore. Despite many inscriptions being catalogued, over 50,000 remain unpublished, primarily from South India.
Harappan Inscriptions
Harappan inscriptions, dating around 2500 B.C., are largely undeciphered. The oldest deciphered inscriptions belong to Emperor Ashoka in the third century B.C. These inscriptions were engraved in Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts, with Brahmi becoming the dominant script across India.
Types of Inscriptions
Inscriptions convey royal decrees, religious dedications, and eulogies of kings. They document social, religious, and administrative matters. Some inscriptions are votive, while others record donations for religious purposes. Land grant inscriptions are crucial for understanding land systems and administration in ancient India.
Languages of Inscriptions
Inscriptions were written in various languages, including Prakrit, Sanskrit, Tamil, and Telugu. They reflect the linguistic diversity of ancient India and provide vital information about regional governance and cultural practices.
Archaeological Significance
The study of material remains, coins, and inscriptions collectively enhances our understanding of ancient Indian society. They reveal aspects of daily life, economic systems, religious practices, and governance structures, contributing to a richer historical narrative.
