India’s judicial system is structured hierarchically. It consists of various levels of courts, each with specific powers. The Supreme Court stands at the apex, followed by High Courts, and then the subordinate courts at local levels. This structure ensures justice is accessible to all citizens.
Supreme Court of India
The Supreme Court is the highest judicial authority in India. It has original, appellate, and advisory jurisdiction. It hears cases involving fundamental rights and constitutional issues. The decisions made by the Supreme Court are binding on all other courts in the country.
High Courts
Each state has a High Court, which is the highest court at the state level. High Courts supervise subordinate courts. They have the power to hear appeals from lower courts and can also issue writs for the enforcement of fundamental rights.
Subordinate Courts
Subordinate courts are established under the authority of the High Courts. They handle the majority of cases in the judicial system. Their nomenclature and jurisdiction can vary from state to state but generally include civil courts, criminal courts, and revenue courts.
Types of Subordinate Courts
Subordinate courts can be categorised into three main types:
- Civil Courts: Handle disputes related to property, contracts, and family law.
- Criminal Courts: Deal with cases involving violations of criminal law.
- Revenue Courts: Address issues related to land revenue and taxation.
Civil Courts Structure
Civil courts in a district are presided over by a District Judge. Below the District Judge, there are Sub-Judges and Munsifs. These courts primarily resolve disputes between individuals or entities. They do not impose criminal penalties.
Criminal Courts Structure
Criminal courts consist of various tiers, including:
- Sessions Court: The highest court for criminal cases in a district.
- Additional Sessions Judges: Assist in handling cases.
- Magistrate Courts: Include First, Second, and Third Class Magistrates.
These courts handle cases like theft, murder, and assault.
Revenue Courts Structure
Revenue courts handle land revenue disputes. The Board of Revenue is the highest authority in this context. Below it are the Courts of Collectors and Tehsildars. These courts resolve matters related to land taxation and ownership rights.
Judicial Appointments
Judges in subordinate courts are appointed by the Governor of the state. This is done in consultation with the High Court.
- District Judges must have been advocates for at least seven years.
- Other judges are selected through competitive examinations conducted by the State Public Service Commission.
Control Over Subordinate Courts
High Courts exercise administrative control over subordinate courts. This includes oversight of postings, promotions, and leave. The High Court can also withdraw cases from subordinate courts.
Jurisdiction of Subordinate Courts
The jurisdiction of subordinate courts varies by state. Generally, they have original jurisdiction over civil and criminal matters. They also have appellate jurisdiction to hear appeals from lower courts.
Constitutional Provisions
Articles 233 to 237 of the Constitution of India govern the functioning of subordinate courts. These provisions ensure their independence from the executive branch.
- Article 233: Addresses the appointment of District Judges.
- Article 234: Covers recruitment of other judicial officers.
Challenges in the Subordinate Judiciary
The subordinate judiciary faces several challenges:
- Poor infrastructure and facilities.
- High case pendency due to a shortage of judges.
- Prolonged litigation processes.
These issues hinder effective justice delivery.
Judicial Mechanisms for Dispute Resolution
In addition to traditional courts, India has alternative dispute resolution mechanisms. These include:
- Lok Adalats: Facilitate amicable settlements.
- Gram Nyayalayas: Handle petty disputes at the village level.
Significance of the Subordinate Judiciary
The subordinate judiciary plays important role in India’s legal system. It ensures access to justice for the common people. Most legal disputes are resolved at this level, making it essential for maintaining law and order.
