By early 1922, the Non-Cooperation Movement had entered a critical phase. Mahatma Gandhi had announced his intention to launch a mass civil disobedience campaign, including a no-tax movement, from Bardoli in Gujarat if the colonial government did not release political prisoners and lift press censorship. However, the ground reality in the United Provinces (modern-day Uttar Pradesh) was increasingly volatile, with local volunteers organizing blockades against high food prices and the sale of foreign goods.
The Chauri Chaura Outbreak (February 4, 1922)
Chauri Chaura, a market town in the Gorakhpur district of the United Provinces, became the flashpoint that altered the course of the Indian national movement.
The Triggering Cause
- Protest against Inflation and Liquor Sales: On February 2, 1922, a group of volunteers led by Bhagat Ram, a retired soldier from the British Indian Army, protested against high meat prices and liquor sales at the local marketplace. The local police intervened, assaulted the leaders, and detained several volunteers.
- The Mobilization: In retaliation, a massive protest march was organized on February 4, 1922. Approximately 2,000 to 2,500 peasants, Khilafat volunteers, and Congress workers gathered to march toward the Chauri Chaura police station to demand the release of their detained leaders.
The Clash and Carnage
- Police Firing: The crowd assembled peacefully outside the police station when the station officer (Daroga) challenged them. As the crowd advanced, the police fired warning shots into the air, which failed to disperse the gathering. The police then opened direct fire on the crowd, killing three protestors and injuring several others.
- The Retaliation: Enraged by the deaths, the crowd lost control and pelted the police with stones. Outnumbered, the policemen retreated into the brick structure of the police station.
- The Arson: The mob locked the doors of the police station from the outside and set the building on fire using kerosene and thatch. Policemen who tried to escape the flames were hacked to death and thrown back into the fire. In total, 22 policemen (including the station officer) were killed in the incident.
The Bardoli Resolution and Suspension of the Movement
The news of the violence reached Mahatma Gandhi, who was stationed at Bardoli preparing for the civil disobedience campaign.
Gandhi’s Immediate Response
- Moral Crisis: Gandhi believed that the Indian masses had not yet fully grasped the spiritual discipline required for Ahimsa (non-violence). He viewed the incident as a sign that the country was not yet mature enough for mass civil disobedience.
- The Penance: As penance for the “Himalayan blunder” of launching a mass movement prematurely, Gandhi undertook a five-day fast.
Formal Withdrawal
- The Bardoli Resolution (February 12, 1922): Gandhi called a meeting of the Congress Working Committee at Bardoli. Despite stiff opposition from almost all top nationalist leaders, he formally passed a resolution to suspend the Non-Cooperation Movement immediately.
- The Directives: The resolution instructed all Congress bodies to stop picketing, cease public processions, and halt all offensive activities. Instead, it directed them to focus entirely on a “constructive program” consisting of hand-spinning (Khadi), Hindu-Muslim unity, and the eradication of untouchability.
The Split: Birth of the Swaraj Party
The unilateral suspension of the movement created deep resentment within the nationalist ranks, leading directly to a structural and strategic division within the Indian National Congress.
Disillusionment among Leadership
Prominent leaders who were imprisoned at the time expressed deep shock and disagreement with Gandhi’s decision:
- Subhas Chandra Bose termed the suspension an “national calamity.”
- Jawaharlal Nehru expressed his deep frustration at why a movement covering the entire country was halted because of the violent stray act of a remote village mob.
The Gaya Session and the Rise of Swarajists
The strategic void left by the suspension forced a re-evaluation of methods at the Gaya Session of the INC (December 1922), presided over by Chittaranjan (C.R.) Das.
| Faction | Core Strategy | Key Leadership |
|---|---|---|
| Pro-Changers (Swarajists) | Advocated ending the boycott of Legislative Councils. Aimed to enter the chambers to obstruct colonial governance from within (“wrecking the system from within”). | C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Vithalbhai Patel. |
| No-Changers | Opposed council entry. Argued for absolute adherence to Gandhi’s boycott model and focus on the constructive program at the grassroots level. | Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, C. Rajagopalachari, M.A. Ansari. |
Following the rejection of the council entry proposal at Gaya, C.R. Das resigned as Congress President and, along with Motilal Nehru, organized the Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party (commonly known as the Swaraj Party) in January 1923, shifting the battlefield of Indian nationalism from the streets to the legislatures.
Legal and Judicial Aftermath of Chauri Chaura
The colonial state launched a severe judicial backlash against the residents of Chauri Chaura and surrounding villages.
The Trial and Sentences
- Mass Arrests: The British police put the entire region under martial-style combing operations, arresting 225 individuals.
- Gorakhpur Sessions Court Judgment (1923): The lower court sentenced 172 of the accused to death by hanging.
- Allahabad High Court Appeal: Prominent nationalist lawyer Madan Mohan Malaviya defended the accused in the High Court. His legal intervention saved many lives. The High Court revised the sentences in April 1923:
- 19 convicts were confirmed for the death penalty (hanged).
- 110 convicts were sentenced to transportation for life.
- The rest were given varying terms of rigorous imprisonment or acquitted due to lack of evidence.