Caste Movements

The struggle against social hierarchy and caste discrimination in modern India ran parallel to the anti-colonial national movement. Between the 1920s and 1940s, the discourse on the “Annihilation of Caste” intersected dynamically with Socialist philosophies and Revolutionary politics. While distinct in their ultimate methodologies, these three political streams engaged with the caste question to mobilize the subaltern masses, challenge Brahmanical hegemony, and redefine the social blueprint of an independent India.

Autonomous Caste Movements and Constitutional Politics

The autonomous caste movements sought social emancipation, civic rights, and political representation for the Depressed Classes, independent of the mainstream, upper-caste-dominated Indian National Congress.

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and the Mobilization of Western India

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar institutionalized anti-caste politics by combining mass civil disobedience with institutional and legal safeguards.

• Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (1924): Formed to promote education and socio-economic upliftment among the Depressed Classes, its core motto was “Educate, Agitate, Organize”.
• Mahad Satyagraha (1927): A defining moment where Ambedkar led untouchables to drink water from the Chardar Tank in Mahad, asserting their fundamental civic rights. On December 25, 1927, the movement publicly burned the Manusmriti to reject ideological justifications for caste stratification.
• Kalaram Temple Satyagraha (1930): Led by Ambedkar and Dadasaheb Gaikwad in Nashik, this movement demanded the entry of Dalits into the Kalaram Temple, highlighting institutionalized religious exclusion.
• The Poona Pact (1932): Following the Communal Award granted by British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald, Mahatma Gandhi went on a fast-unto-death against separate electorates for Dalits. The resulting Poona Pact, signed between Ambedkar and Hindu leaders, replaced separate electorates with reserved seats for the Depressed Classes in provincial legislatures.

The Self-Respect Movement in Southern India

Launched by E.V. Ramasamy (Periyar) in 1925 in the Madras Presidency, the Self-Respect Movement (Suyamariyadhai Iyakkam) approached the caste question through radical rationalism and a complete rejection of religion.

• Anti-Brahmanism and Gender Reforms: The movement advocated for the destruction of Brahmin monopoly in temples and administration. It pioneered “Self-Respect Marriages” performed without priests or religious rituals, elevating women’s rights within the social justice framework.
• Justice Party Integration: By 1944, Periyar transformed the Justice Party into the Dravidar Kazhagam, shifting the anti-caste struggle toward Dravidian identity politics and social liberation.

The Socialist Intersections with the Caste Question

The encounter between Marxist-Socialist groups and caste activists was marked by intense intellectual debates. Mainstream socialists initially viewed caste as a byproduct of feudal economic structures, arguing that a proletarian revolution would automatically eliminate social stratification. However, regional Left leaders gradually recognized that caste and class were structurally intertwined in India.

The Independent Labour Party (ILP) Experiment

Founded by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1936, the ILP represented a synthesis of socialist economics and anti-caste politics.

• The Division of Laborers: Ambedkar critiqued traditional Marxism by stating that the caste system was “not merely a division of labour, but a division of labourers.”
• Proletarian Unity: The ILP organized joint strikes of Dalit municipal workers and upper-caste textile workers in Bombay, fighting simultaneously against capitalist exploitation (Khoti landlord system) and social untouchability.

Singaravelu Chettiar and the Radical Left in Madras

In South India, M. Singaravelu Chettiar (who organized India’s first May Day in 1923) collaborated closely with Periyar’s Self-Respect Movement.

• The Erode Programme (1932): Periyar and Singaravelu drafted this manifesto, which formally infused socialist economic goals into the Self-Respect Movement. It advocated for the nationalization of land and railways alongside the complete eradication of caste discrimination.

The Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (BPKS) and Caste Dynamics

Led by Swami Sahajanand Saraswati in 1929, the BPKS mobilized tenant farmers against upper-caste Bhumihar and Rajput zamindars. While primarily an agrarian class movement, it broke traditional social taboos by bringing lower-caste (Suryavanshi, Kurmi, Yadav) tenants onto a single political platform to resist feudal levies (Begar).

Revolutionary Politics and Anti-Caste Ideology

Revolutionary nationalists, influenced by global anti-imperialist struggles and scientific socialism, actively rejected caste divisions within their cadres, identifying communalism and casteism as tools used by the British to weaken the liberation movement.

Naujawan Bharat Sabha’s Secular Mandate

Founded by Bhagat Singh in 1926, the Naujawan Bharat Sabha made the eradication of untouchability a core constitutional objective.

• Inter-Dining and Communal Harmony: The Sabha organized community feasts where youth from all castes, religions, and backgrounds dined together, openly defying pollution-purity taboos.
• Bhagat Singh’s Theoretical Position: In his seminal 1928 essay, Achoot ka Sawal (The Problem of Untouchability), Bhagat Singh strongly condemned the upper castes for denying human dignity to the Depressed Classes. He hailed the Dalit community as the “real proletariat” and urged them to organize their own independent movements to challenge both British imperialism and domestic social tyranny.

Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA)

The transformation of the HRA to the HSRA in 1928 under the leadership of Chandrashekhar Azad and Bhagat Singh institutionalized an egalitarian ethos.

• De-linking Identity from Armed Struggle: Secret cells of the HSRA across Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and Bihar strictly banned the use of caste surnames among its members.
• Radical Secular Cadres: Recruitment into the underground army depended entirely on ideological commitment and revolutionary capability, effectively creating a casteless micro-society within the revolutionary underground.

Ideological Framework of Caste Engagement

Key Historical Facts for UPSC Prelims

• The Depressed Classes Mission: Founded in 1906 by Maharshi Vitthal Ramji Shinde, an early progressive leader who worked for eradication of untouchability within the framework of social reform in Maharashtra.
• The Vaikom Satyagraha (1924–25): A historic satyagraha in the princely state of Travancore demanding access for lower-caste Ezhavas and Pulayas to roads leading to the Vaikom Temple. It saw active participation from Akali throngs from Punjab and was strongly backed by E.V. Ramasamy Periyar.
• Samata Sainik Dal (Social Equality Army): Founded by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927, this paramilitary-style volunteer cadre was tasked with safeguarding anti-caste meetings, maintaining discipline during satyagrahas, and resisting physical upper-caste backlash.
• Jat-Pat-Todak Mandal (1922): An anti-caste reformist group founded in Lahore by Bhai Parmanand and Sant Ram. It was for the 1936 annual conference of this organization that Dr. B.R. Ambedkar prepared his undelivered presidential address, which was later published as the seminal text Annihilation of Caste.