Bengal before Plassey

During the early 18th century, Bengal was the most prosperous province (subah) of the Mughal Empire, often described as the “Paradise of nations.” It encompassed modern-day West Bengal, Bangladesh, Bihar, and Odisha. The region accounted for nearly 60% of British imports from Asia, driving global trade in commodities such as textiles, raw silk, saltpetre, indigo, and rice.

The Rise of Independent Nawabs

Following the decline of central Mughal authority after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, Murshid Quli Khan became the de facto independent ruler of Bengal, shifting the capital from Dacca to Murshidabad. He was succeeded by Shuja-ud-Din (1727–1739) and Sarfaraz Khan (1739–1740). Alivardi Khan deposed Sarfaraz Khan in 1740 in the Battle of Giria, ruling until 1756. These rulers maintained nominal allegiance to the Mughal Emperor by sending annual tributes but exercised complete administrative and financial autonomy.

Commercial Dynamics and Institutional Friction

The Farman of 1717 and the Imperial Dastaks

Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar issued a royal decree (farman) in 1717 granting the British East India Company (EIC) the right to trade duty-free in Bengal in exchange for a fixed annual payment of 3,000 rupees. Under this arrangement, the Company was permitted to issue trade passes known as dastaks. The systematic misuse of these dastaks by Company servants for private trade caused heavy losses to the state exchequer and became the primary flashpoint between the Nawabs and the British.

Strategic Triangle of European Trade Factories

Bengal hosted a competitive mercantile landscape with multiple European powers operating fortified trade centers, which the Nawabs continuously monitored to prevent foreign political interference.

External and Internal Vulnerabilities of Pre-Plassey Bengal

Maratha Invasions and the Maratha Ditch (1741–1751)

During the reign of Alivardi Khan, Bengal faced repeated devastating invasions by the Maratha forces of Raghuji Bhonsle of Nagpur, led by his commander Bhaskar Pandit. These predatory raids, known as the Bargi invasions, severely disrupted Bengal’s agrarian economy and textile industries. To defend Calcutta, the British constructed a perimeter earthwork known as the “Maratha Ditch.” The conflict ended in 1751 with a treaty where Alivardi Khan ceded Orissa and agreed to pay 12 lakh rupees annually as Chauth to the Marathas.

Succession Crisis and Court Factions (1756)

Alivardi Khan died in April 1756 and nominated his grandson, Siraj-ud-Daulah, as his successor. This choice triggered intense domestic conspiracies. Internal rivalries significantly undermined the Nawab’s authority and laid the groundwork for British political subversion.

• Ghaseti Begum: The maternal aunt of Siraj-ud-Daulah, who championed rival claims to the throne from her base in Motijhil.
• Shaukat Jung: The Nawab of Purnea and cousin of Siraj-ud-Daulah, who revolted but was killed at the Battle of Manihari in October 1756.
• The Murshidabad Triumvirate: A powerful domestic coalition comprising Mir Jafar (the army commander), Jagat Seth (Fateh Chand, the state’s ultra-wealthy banker), and Rai Durlabh.

Direct Catalysts Leading to Open Conflict

Unlawful Fortifications and the Abuse of Sovereignty

The outbreak of the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763) in Europe prompted the British and French to fortify their respective settlements in Bengal without the Nawab’s permission. Siraj-ud-Daulah ordered both powers to demolish these illegal military extensions. While the French complied at Chandernagore, the British at Fort William refused, directly challenging the sovereign authority of the Nawab.

Protection of State Fugitives

The EIC further aggravated the Nawab by granting political asylum in Calcutta to Krishna Das, son of Rajballabh, who had fled Murshidabad with substantial state revenues.

The Siege of Calcutta and the Black Hole Incident

In response to British defiance, Siraj-ud-Daulah marched on Calcutta, capturing the city in June 1756. Fort William surrendered, and the city was temporarily renamed Alinagar. Following the surrender, the controversial “Black Hole” incident occurred, where British prisoners were confined in a small cell, leading to numerous deaths from suffocation. This event was used by Robert Clive and Watson to justify immediate military retaliation from Madras, leading to the signing of the Treaty of Alinagar in February 1757, which restored British privileges and set the stage for the Battle of Plassey.

Historical Trivia for Civil Services Aspirants

The Origins of Calcutta

Calcutta was founded in 1690 by Job Charnock, an agent of the EIC, by combining three traditional villages: Sutanuti, Gobindapur, and Kalikata. The zamindari rights over these villages were purchased from the Sabarna Roy Choudhury family.

The Term Bargi

The term Bargi is derived from the Marathi word bargir, which designated light cavalry soldiers who were provided with horses and equipment directly by the Maratha state, distinguishing them from the silahdars who owned their own equipment.