Civil Disobedience Aftermath

The suspension of the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1934 marked a transition from mass agitation to constitutional politics. The British government enacted the Government of India Act 1935, which proposed a federal structure and provincial autonomy, abolishing the system of diarchy in the provinces. The Indian National Congress (INC) faced an internal debate regarding entry into the legislatures. Left-wing leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose opposed council entry, arguing it would lead to compromise with imperialism. Conversely, leaders like Bhulabhai Desai and K.M. Munshi advocated for contesting elections to wreck the 1935 Act from within and prevent reactionary elements from seizing power. Ultimately, the Congress decided to contest the provincial elections held in early 1937.

The 1937 Provincial Elections

The elections of 1937 proved to be a major turning point, demonstrating the widespread electoral appeal of the Congress across diverse regions of India.

Electoral Performance of Congress

The Congress contested elections under a manifesto that rejected the 1935 Act but promised sweeping socio-economic reforms, the release of political prisoners, and the removal of disabilities on women and depressed classes. Out of 11 provinces, the Congress achieved absolute majorities in five (Madras, Central Provinces, United Provinces, Bihar, and Orissa) and emerged as the single largest party in Bombay, Assam, and the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP).

Overview of Provincial Governments (1937)

Achievements and Reforms of Congress Ministries (1937–1939)

During their 28-month tenure, the Congress ministries implemented significant administrative and legislative reforms to alleviate agrarian distress and expand civil liberties.

Civil Liberties and Administrative Reforms

• The ministries repealed emergency powers legislation enacted to suppress the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• Ban orders on illegal organizations, including the Congress Working Committee, and restrictions on nationalist newspapers were lifted.
• Political prisoners, including several revolutionary nationalists detained without trial, were released.
• The powers of the police were curtailed, and the system of using village officials to gather political intelligence was discontinued.

Agrarian and Labor Reforms

• Tenancy Legislation: The Bihar Tenancy Act, the United Provinces Tenancy Act, and the Bombay Tenancy Act were passed to grant security of tenure to tenants and protect them against arbitrary eviction and rent hikes.
• Debt Relief: Legislation was enacted in Madras and Bombay to reduce rural indebtedness, liquidate old debts, and regulate the activities of indigenous moneylenders.
• Labor Welfare: The Bombay Trade Disputes Act (1938) sought to mediate industrial disputes, while the Textile Labor Inquiry Committee recommended wage hikes for factory workers.

Social Welfare Initiatives

• Basic Education models based on Mahatma Gandhi’s Wardha Scheme of Education (Nai Talim) were introduced in several provinces.
• Total prohibition of liquor was introduced in select districts of Madras (led by C. Rajagopalachari) and Bombay.
• Temple Entry Acts were passed in Madras and Bombay to remove social disabilities faced by Dalits (Harijans).

Limitations and Internal Ideological Fractures

The functioning of the Congress ministries exposed several internal contradictions within the nationalist movement, leading to friction between different ideological factions.

The Left-Right Divide

The Congress High Command, dominated by right-wing leaders like Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, and C. Rajagopalachari, favored a cautious, reformist approach to avoid alienating landlords and industrialists. The Congress Left, including the Congress Socialist Party (CSP) and peasant leaders like Swami Sahajanand Saraswati (founder of the All India Kisan Sabha), criticized the ministries for failing to completely abolish Zamindari and for suppressing radical peasant agitations in Bihar and UP.

Handling of Labor Unrest

In Bombay and Kanpur, industrial strikes led by communist and socialist trade unions were met with administrative repression. The Congress ministry in Bombay utilized Section 144 of the Criminal Procedure Code and deployed police forces to maintain order, drawing sharp criticism from left-wing nationalists who argued that the Congress was adopting the methods of the colonial state.

Rise of Communalism

The refusal of the Congress to form a coalition government with the Muslim League in the United Provinces in 1937 alienated Muhammad Ali Jinnah. The Muslim League subsequently launched an aggressive propaganda campaign, appointing the Pirpur Committee (1938) and the Shareef Report to investigate alleged atrocities committed by Congress ministries against Muslims. This period accelerated the polarization that culminated in the demand for Pakistan.

Resignation of the Congress Ministries (1939)

The ministerial experiment ended abruptly with the outbreak of World War II.

The Trigger

In September 1939, Viceroy Lord Linlithgow declared India a belligerent party in World War II without consulting elected Indian representatives or provincial ministries.

The Resolution

The Congress Working Committee demanded that the British government declare its war aims and guarantee immediate self-determination for India. When the British government issued a vague statement promising dominion status in the distant future, the Congress High Command directed all provincial ministries to resign. By October and November 1939, all eight Congress-led governments stepped down.

Historical Trivia

The Muslim League, led by Jinnah, celebrated the exit of the Congress ministries by observing December 22, 1939, as the “Day of Deliverance” (Yaum-e-Najat), supported by B.R. Ambedkar and the Justice Party.

Subhas Chandra Bose and the Radical Alternative

Parallel to the constitutional experiments of the Congress ministries, Subhas Chandra Bose emerged as the foremost leader of the radical, anti-compromise faction within the nationalist movement.

Presidential Tenures of Bose

• Haripura Session (1938): Bose was elected unanimously as Congress President. In his presidential address, he advocated for a planned economy and industrialization. He set up the National Planning Committee with Jawaharlal Nehru as its chairman to draft a blueprint for post-independence economic development.
• Tripuri Session (1939) and the Crisis: Bose sought re-election to push for an immediate ultimatum to the British government to grant independence, capitalizing on the impending war crisis in Europe. Mahatma Gandhi opposed his candidature and backed Pattabhi Sitaramayya. Bose won the election by 1,580 to 1,377 votes, prompting Gandhi to declare that “Sitaramayya’s defeat is my defeat.”

Formation of the Forward Bloc

The internal gridlock deepened when the Tripuri Congress passed the Pant Resolution, which mandated that the Congress President must appoint the Working Committee in accordance with Gandhi’s wishes. Refusing to serve as a figurehead president, Bose resigned from the presidency in April 1939 (replaced by Rajendra Prasad). In May 1939, Bose formed the All India Forward Bloc within the Congress as a left-wing faction to unify radical elements. When he organized a nationwide protest against a Congress resolution restricting provincial committees from launching civil disobedience without central approval, the Congress Working Committee disqualified him from holding any elective office in the Congress for three years (August 1939).

The Shift to External Liberation

Following the outbreak of World War II, Bose argued that Britain’s difficulty was India’s opportunity. He was placed under house arrest in Calcutta in 1940 but executed a daring escape in January 1941, traveling through Afghanistan and the Soviet Union to Nazi Germany. This marked the transition of his strategy from internal mass mobilization to securing external military assistance to overthrow British rule, culminating in his leadership of the Indian National Army (Azad Hind Fauj).