Decline of Mughal Empire

The decline of the Mughal Empire in the 18th century marks the transition from the Medieval to the Modern period in Indian history. This transition laid the groundwork for the rise of regional polities and the eventual establishment of British paramountcy.

Historical Sources and Historiographical Perspectives

To understand the disintegration of the empire, historians rely on diverse contemporary accounts, administrative manuals, and modern interpretations.

Contemporary Literary Sources

• Muntakhab-ul-Lubab (Khafi Khan): Provides a detailed account of the reign of Aurangzeb and his successors, highlighting administrative inefficiencies and the agrarian crisis.
• Ahkam-i-Alamgiri (Hamid-ud-din Khan): A crucial source for understanding Aurangzeb’s later years, his policies in the Deccan, and his personal letters indicating administrative strain.
• Siyar-ul-Mutakherin (Ghulam Husain Khan): Offers a comprehensive view of the post-Aurangzeb era, detailing the breakdown of central authority and the rise of the East India Company in Bengal.
• Massir-i-Alamgiri (Saqi Mustaid Khan): A history of Aurangzeb’s reign written shortly after his death, illuminating the imperial administrative structure and military campaigns.

Historiographical Debates: Empire-Centric vs. Region-Centric

Historians are divided into two main schools of thought regarding the nature of the Mughal decline:

Political and Successor Factors: The Later Mughals

The period after Aurangzeb’s death in 1707 was characterized by short reigns, wars of succession, and weak rulers who became puppets in the hands of powerful noble factions.

Chronology of the Later Mughals (1707–1857)

• Bahadur Shah I / Shah Alam I (1707–1712): Followed a policy of pacification; released the Maratha prince Shahu from captivity and made peace with the Rajputs. He was nicknamed Shah-i-Bekhabar (The Heedless King) due to his casual approach to governance.
• Jahandar Shah (1712–1713): Introduced the system of Ijarah (revenue farming) to stabilize finances and abolished Jizya. He ruled with the assistance of Zulfaqar Khan.
• Farrukhsiyar (1713–1719): Ascended the throne with the help of the Sayyid Brothers. He is best known for issuing the Royal Farman of 1717 to the British East India Company, granting them duty-free trade rights in Bengal. He executed the Sikh leader Banda Singh Bahadur in 1716.
• Rafi-ud-Darajat & Rafi-ud-Daulah (1719): Shortest-lived puppets placed on the throne by the Sayyid Brothers; both died of illnesses within months.
• Muhammad Shah ‘Rangeela’ (1719–1748): His long reign witnessed the irreversible disintegration of the empire. Nizam-ul-Mulk established independent Hyderabad in 1724. Nadir Shah invaded Delhi during his reign in 1739.
• Ahmad Shah (1748–1754): Characterized by administrative incompetence. Ahmad Shah Abdali launched his initial raids into India during this period.
• Alamgir II (1754–1759): Witnessed the Battle of Plassey (1757). He was assassinated by his own Wazir, Imad-ul-Mulk.
• Shah Alam II (1759–1806): Witnessed the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) and participated in the Battle of Buxar (1764). Defeated by the British, he signed the Treaty of Allahabad (1765), granting Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha to the East India Company, becoming a British pensioner.
• Akbar II (1806–1837): Title-holder whose authority was confined to the Red Fort. He sent Ram Mohan Roy to England to plead for an increase in his imperial pension, conferring the title of “Raja” upon him.
• Bahadur Shah II ‘Zafar’ (1857): The last Mughal Emperor. He was declared the symbolic leader of the 1857 Revolt, subsequently tried by the British, and exiled to Rangoon, ending the dynasty.

Structural, Economic, and Factional Causes of Decline

The collapse was driven by a combination of institutional failures, economic distress, and internal political sabotage.

The Mansabdari and Jagirdari Crisis

The administrative framework created by Akbar depended heavily on the Mansabdari system. Under the Later Mughals, the system collapsed due to structural imbalances:

• Be-jagiri: A critical shortage of available lands to be allotted as Jagirs to the rising number of Mansabdars.
• Zat vs. Sawar Disproportions: The state inflated ranks (Zat) without maintaining the corresponding required cavalry units (Swar), compromising military strength.
• Fractured Collection: Jagirdars frequently altered revenue demands, exploiting the peasantry because they lacked long-term security over their land assignments.

Agrarian Distress and Peasant Revolts

The escalating revenue requirements of the state and the greed of Ijaradars (revenue farmers) triggered widespread rural revolts. These rebellions were often led by local zamindars who leveraged peasant dissatisfaction against the Mughal center:

• The Jats: Rebelled in the Agra-Delhi region under the leadership of Gokula, Rajaram, and later Badan Singh and Suraj Mal, establishing a state in Bharatpur.
• The Satnamis: A religious sect composed of peasants, artisans, and low-caste individuals who launched a major armed revolt against imperial oppression in 1672 near Narnaul.
• The Sikhs: Transformed into a military fraternity (Khalsa) by Guru Gobind Singh, they waged continuous wars against Mughal authority in the Punjab under Banda Singh Bahadur.

Factionalism in the Mughal Court

The imperial court divided into competitive, self-serving aristocratic factions based on ethnicity and region. These groups sabotaged central governance to secure lucrative provinces and offices:

• The Irani Faction: Included nobles of Persian descent, such as Asad Khan and Zulfiqar Khan.
• The Turani Faction: Included Central Asian nobles of Turkish descent, notably Nizam-ul-Mulk (Chin Qulich Khan) and Zakariya Khan.
• The Hindustani Faction: Consisted of Indian-born Muslims, famously led by the Sayyid Brothers (Abdullah Khan and Hussain Ali Khan), known historically as the “Kingmakers.”

Military Vulnerabilities and External Invasions

The internal decay of the empire left its northwestern borders exposed, making India vulnerable to devastating foreign incursions.

Strategic Deficiencies of the Mughal Army

• Absence of a Navy: The Mughals never developed a strong naval force, leaving coastal regions vulnerable to European maritime powers.
• Outdated Weaponry: The imperial forces continued to rely on heavy, immobile artillery and traditional cavalry charges, whereas contemporary European and West Asian armies adopted light artillery, muskets, and disciplined infantry drilling.
• Decentralized Command: Soldiers were loyal to their individual Mansabdars rather than directly to the Emperor, leading to frequent betrayals and desertions during battles.

Foreign Invasions

Nadir Shah’s Invasion (1739)

The Persian ruler Nadir Shah marched into India, exploiting weak border defenses.

Battle of Karnal (1739)

Nadir Shah decisively defeated the Mughal forces led by Muhammad Shah Rangeela. Delhi was occupied, and a mass plunder followed. The invaders seized the famous Peacock Throne (Takht-i-Taus) and the Koh-i-Noor diamond, economically crippling the empire and destroying its political prestige.

Ahmad Shah Abdali’s Invasions (1748–1767)

The ruler of Afghanistan, Ahmad Shah Abdali, invaded northern India multiple times. His campaigns culminated in the Third Battle of Panipat (1761), where he defeated the Maratha forces led by Sadashivrao Bhau. While it did not re-establish Mughal power, it prevented the Marathas from replacing the Mughals, creating a political vacuum that favored British expansion.

The Rise of Regional States

As the authority of the Delhi court eroded, three types of regional polities emerged across the subcontinent.

Successor States

Provinces that broke away from the empire but retained Mughal administrative structures and symbolic allegiance:

• Awadh: Founded by Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk in 1722.
• Bengal: Established independently by Murshid Quli Khan, who shifted the capital from Dacca to Murshidabad.
• Hyderabad: Carved out by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah in 1724 in the Deccan.

Independent Kingdoms

States that emerged primarily due to the destabilization of Mughal provincial control:

• The Rajput States: Rulers like Sawai Jai Singh of Amber attempted to assert autonomy, leveraging regional instability to consolidate territory.
• Mysore: Emerged under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan, challenging both regional principalities and European companies.

Warrior States / Insurgent Polities

Formed by groups in direct military conflict with the Mughal state:

• The Maratha Confederacy: Developed under the Peshwas into the most formidable indigenous military threat to the Mughals.
• The Sikh Misls: Twelve sovereign military states organized in the Punjab, later unified under Maharaja Ranjit Singh at the close of the 18th century.