Rise of Indian Nationalism

The rise of Indian nationalism in the late 19th century was not an isolated event but a product of a complex mix of colonial policies, economic exploitation, and intellectual awakening. It marked a transition from localized, sporadic resistance to a cohesive, subcontinental consciousness.

Factors Facilitating the Rise of Nationalism

• Political and Administrative Unification: The British Raj established a centralized administrative apparatus across the subcontinent. The introduction of a uniform legal system, codification of laws (like the Indian Penal Code, 1860), and a centralized civil service inadvertently created a sense of political unity among Indians.
• Development of Transport and Communication: The introduction of the Railways (1853), modern postal systems, and the electric telegraph network bridged geographical barriers. This infrastructure, built for colonial defense and commercial exploitation, allowed nationalist leaders from different regions to interact, deliberate, and coordinate.
• Impact of Western Education: The introduction of English education (following Macaulay’s Minute of 1835) opened a window to Western liberal thought. Educated Indians were exposed to ideas of liberty, equality, fraternity, democracy, and self-determination championed by thinkers like Rousseau, Voltaire, John Stuart Mill, and Mazzini.
• Economic Exploitation of India: The economic critique of British rule became a powerful unifying factor. Intellectuals exposed how British policies destroyed traditional handicrafts, caused agrarian distress through heavy land revenue demands, and drained Indian wealth to Britain.
• The Role of the Press and Literature: The growth of both the English and the vernacular press acted as a vehicle for the dissemination of nationalist ideas. Newspapers like The Amrita Bazar Patrika, The Bengali, The Hindu, and Kesari criticized colonial administrative policies and fostered a shared public opinion.
• Rediscovery of India’s Past: Research by European and Indian indologists (such as Max Müller, Monier-Williams, and R.G. Bhandarkar) painted a picture of India’s rich ancient heritage. This countered the British colonial narrative that Indians were historically incapable of self-governance, boosting national self-esteem.
• Reactionary Policies of Lord Lytton (1876–1880): The aggressive and discriminatory policies of Viceroy Lytton accelerated public discontent. Key provocations included:
  • The Vernacular Press Act (1878): Aimed at gagging vernacular newspapers while exempting English publications.
  • The Arms Act (1879): Criminalized the possession of firearms by Indians without a license, while exempting Europeans.
  • Imperial Durbar (1877): Organized at a time when a devastating famine was killing millions in South India.
  • Reduction of Civil Services Age Limit: Lowering the maximum age from 21 to 19 years to deliberately restrict Indian entry into the Indian Civil Services (ICS).
• The Ilbert Bill Controversy (1883): Prepared during Lord Ripon’s viceroyalty, the bill aimed to allow Indian district magistrates and sessions judges to try Europeans in criminal cases. The vehement, racist opposition by Anglo-Indians and British officials forced the government to compromise, teaching Indian nationalists the efficacy of organized, collective agitation.

Political Associations Preceding the Indian National Congress

Before the formation of the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885, several regional political associations laid the groundwork for an all-India movement.

The Foundation of the Indian National Congress (1885)

The culmination of early nationalist efforts led to the creation of the Indian National Congress, which provided a pan-Indian platform for the anti-colonial struggle.

The Genesis and First Session

• Founding Initiative: Allan Octavian Hume (A.O. Hume), a retired British civil servant, played a pivotal role by mobilizing educated Indians and coordinating with regional associations.
• The First Session: The first session of the INC was held from December 28 to December 31, 1885, at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College in Bombay. It was originally scheduled to take place in Poona, but was shifted due to an outbreak of cholera in the city.
• Leadership and Attendance: Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee (W.C. Bonnerjee) presided over the first session, which was attended by 72 delegates from various parts of India. Key attendees included Pherozeshah Mehta, Dinshaw Wacha, K.T. Telang, and G. Subramaniya Iyer. Surendranath Banerjea was absent as he was presiding over the second National Conference in Calcutta.
• The “Safety Valve” Theory: Early historians and some radical nationalists (like Lala Lajpat Rai) argued that the INC was created under the direction of Viceroy Lord Dufferin to act as a “safety valve” for safe transmission of political discontent, preventing another violent uprising like the 1857 Revolt. Modern historians, however, view A.O. Hume as a “lightning conductor” used by early Indian nationalists to bring together politically conscious elements without inviting immediate suppression from the colonial state.

The Moderate Phase (1885–1905)

The first two decades of the Indian National Congress are known as the Moderate Phase. The movement during this period was dominated by leaders who believed in constitutional methods and a gradualist approach to political reforms.

Prominent Moderate Leaders

• Dadabhai Naoroji: Known as the “Grand Old Man of India.” He was elected President of the INC three times (1886, 1893, and 1906). He founded the East India Association in London and wrote Poverty and Un-British Rule in India.
• Gopal Krishna Gokhale: Founded the Servants of India Society (1905). He served as a mentor to both Mahatma Gandhi and Mohammed Ali Jinnah and specialized in analyzing imperial budgets.
• Surendranath Banerjea: Founded the Indian Association of Calcutta and edited the newspaper The Bengali. He was the first Indian to pass the ICS examination but was dismissed on minor technical grounds.
• Pherozeshah Mehta: Known as the “Lion of Bombay,” he edited the Bombay Chronicle and instrumentalized municipal reforms in Bombay.
• Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade: A pioneer of social and economic reforms in Western India, he was a co-founder of the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and the Indian National Social Conference (1887).
• Dinshaw Edulji Wacha: A brilliant economist who worked closely with Naoroji to track British fiscal policy and military expenditures.

Ideology, Beliefs, and Methods of the Moderates

• Faith in British Justice: Moderates possessed a deep faith in British liberalism, sense of justice, and fair play. They believed that the British rule had modernizing benefits for India, and that British policymakers were unaware of the true, dismal state of Indian affairs.
• Constitutional and Peaceful Agitation: They strictly avoided violence, mass mobilization, and law-breaking. Their methods were confined to the “3 Ps”: Petition, Prayer, and Protest. They passed resolutions, drafted memorandums, sent delegations to England, and sought to educate public opinion.
• Gradualism: Their immediate goal was not absolute independence (Purna Swaraj) but self-government within the framework of the British Empire, similar to the self-governing colonies of Canada or Australia.

Core Demands of the Moderates

Economic Demands

• Reduction of land revenue assessments to alleviate peasant distress.
• Abolition of the salt tax and reduction of the transit duties on internal trade.
• Reduction in military expenditure, which consumed a vast portion of the Indian budget for imperial wars outside India.
• Imposition of protective tariffs on imported goods to safeguard indigenous infant industries.
• Inquiry into the rising frequency of famines and allocation of state funds for irrigation works.

Political and Administrative Demands

• Expansion and reform of the Legislative Councils to increase Indian representation and give them control over the budget.
• Simultaneous holding of the Indian Civil Services (ICS) examinations in London and India to give Indian candidates a fair chance.
• Separation of executive and judicial functions to ensure fair trials.
• Repeal of the discriminatory Arms Act of 1878 and the Vernacular Press Act.
• Extension of trial by jury.
• An end to the indentured labor system and the harsh treatment of Indian laborers working abroad in British colonies.

Key Contributions of the Moderates

• Economic Critique of Colonialism: This stands as their most enduring contribution. Through books, speeches, and articles, they systematically dismantled the British claim of providing benevolent governance.
  • The Theory of Drain of Wealth: Formulated by Dadabhai Naoroji, this theory explained how a large part of India’s national wealth and resources were systematically exported to Britain without any equivalent economic or material return. It occurred through remittances by British officials (Home Charges), interest on public debt, profits of foreign capitalists, and military expenses.
  • Key Economic Literati: Apart from Naoroji’s Poverty and Un-British Rule in India, Romesh Chunder Dutt (R.C. Dutt) published The Economic History of India (1901), which meticulously documented the destruction of Indian agriculture and traditional industries. M.G. Ranade wrote Essays on Indian Economics.
• The Indian Councils Act, 1892: The consistent political pressure of the Moderates forced the British Parliament to pass this Act. It expanded the number of additional non-official members in both the Central and Provincial Legislative Councils. For the first time, it introduced an indirect element of election (though the word “election” was avoided) and gave members the right to discuss the annual financial statement (budget) and ask questions under certain restrictions.
• Welby Commission on Indian Expenditure (1895): Set up by the British government to look into the distribution of military and civil expenditures between Britain and India. Dadabhai Naoroji and Dinshaw Wacha deposed before this commission as witnesses, utilizing the platform to expose fiscal exploitation.
• Sowing the Seeds of Democracy: They popularized ideas of secularism, representative democracy, and nationalism among the Indian public. They built an institutionalized political apparatus that served as the foundational structure for subsequent phases of the national movement.

Limitations and Criticisms of the Moderates

• Narrow Social Base: The Moderate movement lacked mass participation. It was predominantly composed of urban, English-educated elites—lawyers, doctors, journalists, teachers, and wealthy landlords. It did not actively involve the peasantry, industrial workers, or the lower-middle classes.
• Disconnection from the Masses: Leaders like Pherozeshah Mehta believed that the masses were still too uneducated and politically unaware to participate meaningfully in constitutional agitations.
• Ineffective Methodology: Their reliance on petitions and appeals was mocked by later radical nationalists (the Extremists) as “political mendicancy” (begging for political favors). The British administration consistently ignored their core demands, with Viceroy Lord Curzon famously stating that the Congress was “tottering to its fall” and that his ambition was to assist it to a peaceful demise.
• Illusions of British Altruism: Their fundamental premise—that British rule could be reformed from within via moral persuasion—proved to be structurally flawed. They failed to realize that British colonial interests were inherently contradictory to Indian national development.

Key Historical Trivia for Prelims

• First Woman Graduate to Address the INC: Kadambini Ganguly, the first female medical graduate from Calcutta University, addressed the INC session in 1890, symbolizing the early steps toward women’s participation in nationalist politics.
• The National Song: Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay’s Vande Mataram was sung for the first time on a political platform at the 1896 Calcutta session of the INC, presided over by Rahimtullah M. Sayani.
• First British President of the INC: George Yule presided over the fourth session of the INC at Allahabad in 1888. Other early British presidents included Sir William Wedderburn (1889, 1910), Alfred Webb (1894), and Sir Henry Cotton (1904).
• The British Committee of the INC: Established in London in 1889 to cultivate British public opinion. It started a journal called India to report on Indian affairs to the British audience.