Underground Activities

During the crucial phase of the Second World War (1939–1945), the Indian National Movement underwent a radical transformation. The arrest of the mainstream Indian National Congress (INC) leadership on August 9, 1942, following the launch of the Quit India Movement, created a leadership vacuum. This vacuum was filled by a sophisticated network of underground activities and the external military offensive of the Azad Hind Fauj (Indian National Army). Together, these forces shifted the nationalist strategy from passive non-cooperation to active disruption and armed confrontation.

The Quit India Movement (1942) and the Underground Network

The “Do or Die” (Karo ya Maro) manifesto catalyzed a leaderless, decentralized mass uprising. As the British administration unleashed severe repression, prominent socialist and forward-bloc leaders retreated underground to organize a structured resistance.

Key Architecture of the Underground Movement

• Central Directorate: A clandestine Central Directorate was established in Bombay to coordinate nationwide disruptions, headed by figures like Achyut Patwardhan, Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia, and Sucheta Kripalani.
• The Azad Dastas: Guerilla bands led by Jayaprakash Narayan after his daring escape from Hazaribagh Central Jail in November 1942. Operating primarily in the Indo-Nepal border region, these units specialized in sabotaging communication lines, raiding treasuries, and disrupting rail networks to paralyze British military logistics.
• Funding and Logistics: Wealthy merchants in Bombay and Calcutta, along with sympathetic government officials, provided secret financial backing, shelter, and intelligence on police movements.

The Congress Radio: Clandestine Broadcasting

• Founding and Operation: Usha Mehta, along with Vithaldas Khakar, Chandrakant Jhaveri, and Babubhai Khakar, established the secret “Congress Radio” broadcasting from shifting locations in Bombay.
• Frequencies and Reach: Operating on a 42.34-meter band, the radio broadcasted vital news regarding British atrocities, parallel governments, and prohibited speeches by Mahatma Gandhi.
• Impact: It served as the primary antidote to censored colonial wartime media until its discovery and seizure by the police in November 1942.

Parallel Governments (Prati Sarkar) of 1942

The breakdown of colonial machinery allowed nationalists to set up autonomous parallel administrations in several pockets of rural India, demonstrating effective self-rule.

Ballia (Uttar Pradesh)

• Duration and Leadership: Established in August 1942 under Chittu Pandey.
• Key Actions: Cleared the district administration, released arrested Congress leaders, and briefly took over the collector’s authority before British military re-occupation.

Tamluk (Midnapore, Bengal)

• Duration and Nomenclature: Named the Tamluk Jatiya Sarkar (National Government), functioning from December 1942 to September 1944.
• Key Institutions: Established independent courts (Bidyut Vahini as its armed wing), judicial systems, and organized massive relief operations during the devastating Bengal Famine of 1943.

Satara (Maharashtra)

• Duration and Leadership: The longest-lasting parallel government (1943–1946), led by Y.B. Chavan and Nana Patil.
• Key Institutions: Set up Nyayadan Mandals (people’s courts), banned liquor sales, established shadow administrative machinery, and organized Toofan Senas (volunteer corps) to enforce public order.

Talcher (Odisha)

• Key Actions: Stripped the local state apparatus of power in September 1942, governing the region until a massive deployment of British air and ground forces dismantled it.

The Indian National Army (INA) / Azad Hind Fauj

While internal resistance relied on underground sabotage, external resistance took the shape of a conventional military offensive leveraging the geopolitical dynamics of World War II.

First Phase: Ideation and Formation

• The Origin: Conceived in Malaya by Mohan Singh, a Captain in the British Indian Army, who refused to retreat and surrendered to the Japanese forces.
• The Catalyst: Major Fujiwara of the Japanese army encouraged Mohan Singh to form an army composed of Indian Prisoners of War (POWs) to liberate India.
• The Collapse: The first phase collapsed by December 1942 due to severe disagreements between Mohan Singh and the Japanese command over the autonomy of the INA.

Second Phase: Subhas Chandra Bose and Revitalization

• Leadership Handover: Rash Behari Bose, who had kept the Indian Independence League alive in Tokyo, officially handed over control to Subhas Chandra Bose in July 1943.
• Provisional Government: On October 21, 1943, Bose proclaimed the formation of the Azad Hind Sarkar (Provisional Government of Free India) in Singapore. It was recognized by Axis powers, including Germany, Japan, and Italy.
• Headquarters: Established in Singapore, later shifted to Rangoon (Burma) in January 1944 to bring the military operations closer to the Indian frontier.

Military Structure and Regiments

The INA was reorganized into structured fighting brigades named after national leaders to foster secular patriotism:

• Gandhi Brigade
• Nehru Brigade
• Azad Brigade
• Rani Jhansi Regiment: One of the world’s first all-female combat infantry units, commanded by Captain Lakshmi Swaminathan (Sahgal).

The Military Campaigns (1944–1945)

• The Arakan Offensive: The INA fought alongside the Japanese 15th Army, breaching the Anglo-American defense lines in Burma.
• The Imphal and Kohima Campaigns: The INA advanced into Indian territory, hoisting the Tricolor at Moirang (Manipur) in April 1944. However, the campaign stalled due to the failure of Japanese logistics, early monsoons, and absolute British air superiority.
• Surrender: Following the atomic bombings of Japan and the subsequent surrender of Axis forces in August 1945, the INA retreated, leading to the mass arrest of its soldiers by the British.

The Post-War Crisis: INA Trials and Domestic Repercussions

The decision of the colonial government to publicly try INA officers for treason at the Red Fort in Delhi (November 1945) backfired, creating an unprecedented wave of nationalist unity across communal lines.

The Red Fort Trials

• The Defendants: Colonel Prem Sahgal (Hindu), Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon (Sikh), and Shah Nawaz Khan (Muslim). This multi-faith composition unified the entire domestic political spectrum.
• The INA Defence Committee: The Indian National Congress formed a formidable legal defense team, marking the return of Bhulabhai Desai, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Kailash Nath Katju, and Jawaharlal Nehru to the courtroom after decades.

Popular Mutinies and the Final Blow to Colonial Rule

The trial galvanized widespread public unrest, culminating in military mutinies that signaled the collapse of the British hold over the armed forces:

• Royal Indian Navy (RIN) Revolt (February 1946): Ratings of HMIS Talwar in Bombay went on strike against racial discrimination, low pay, and unpalatable food. The mutiny spread to 78 ships and 20 shore establishments.
• Royal Indian Air Force (RIAF) Strikes: Ground crews and pilots in Karachi, Ambala, and Bombay went on strike in solidarity with the INA trials.
• Jabalpur Army Mutiny: Indian soldiers of the Class Composition regiments revolted, directly challenging British military command internally.

Historical Facts and Trivia for Prelims

• Slogan Origins: The slogan “Quit India” was coined by Yusuf Meherally, a socialist leader and Mayor of Bombay, who also coined the slogan “Simon Go Back.”
• Azad Hind Currency: The Provisional Government issued its own currency notes, postage stamps, and established the Azad Hind Bank in Rangoon.
• The INA Motto: The official motto of the Azad Hind Fauj was Ittehad, Itmad aur Qurbani (Unity, Faith, and Sacrifice).
• Jai Hind: Abid Hasan Safrani, a close aide of Subhas Chandra Bose, coined the greeting “Jai Hind,” which later became the national salutation of independent India.
• The Secret Transmitter: The technical transmitter for Usha Mehta’s Congress Radio was custom-built by Nariman Printer, an amateur radio enthusiast.