Non-Cooperation Programme

The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922) was the first mass-based political campaign launched under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. It marked a paradigm shift in the Indian National Movement, transitioning from constitutional agitation to widespread passive resistance and mass mobilization.

Underlying Catalysts of the Movement

• Economic Distress Post-World War I: High inflation, heavy taxation, and disruptions in trade caused widespread discontent among peasants, workers, and the middle class.
• The Rowlatt Act (1919): Officially known as the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, it authorized the government to imprison any person suspected of terrorism without trial for up to two years.
• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919): The brutal firing on a peaceful gathering in Amritsar by General Reginald Dyer alienated mainstream Indian leadership from British rule.
• The Hunter Committee Reports: The official British inquiry into the Jallianwala Bagh tragedy whitewashed the actions of the perpetrators, deeply hurting Indian sentiments.
• The Khilafat Movement: Indian Muslims launched an agitation under the leadership of the Ali brothers (Mohamed Ali and Shaukat Ali), Maulana Azad, and Hasrat Mohani against the dismantling of the Ottoman Caliphate by the British. Gandhi saw this as an opportunity to cement Hindu-Muslim unity.

Formal Adoption and Launch

• Calcutta Special Session (September 10, 1920): The Indian National Congress (INC) approved the Non-Cooperation program until the Punjab and Khilafat wrongs were redressed and Swaraj (self-rule) was established.
• Nagpur Session (December 1920): The program was formally ratified. Crucially, the INC changed its constitutional creed from seeking self-government through constitutional means to attaining Swaraj through peaceful and legitimate mass struggle.

Core Programmes and Methods of Non-Cooperation

The movement was structured into two distinct operational categories: surrender/boycott (negative aspects) and constructive programs (positive aspects).

Boycott and Renunciation Measures

• Surrender of Titles: Renunciation of government-conferred titles, honorary positions, and local body memberships. Mahatma Gandhi surrendered his Kaisar-i-Hind Gold Medal.
• Boycott of Government Educational Institutions: Students left government-aided schools and colleges, leading to the creation of national institutions.
• Boycott of Law Courts: Lawyers gave up their practice, and disputes were encouraged to be settled through private arbitration committees (Panchayats).
• Boycott of Legislative Councils: Prominent nationalist leaders refused to contest or vote in the elections held under the Government of India Act, 1919.
• Boycott of Foreign Goods: Public bonfires of foreign cloth were organized, and picketing of shops selling foreign liquor and textiles was widely practiced.

Constructive and Alternative Initiatives

• Establishment of National Educational Institutions: Institutions independent of British control were founded to provide national education.
• Promotion of Swadeshi and Khadi: Hand-spinning (Charkha) and hand-weaving were popularized to achieve economic self-reliance.
• Social Reforms: Campaigns were undertaken for the abolition of untouchability, the promotion of Hindu-Muslim unity, and the prohibition of intoxicating drinks.

Key National Institutions and Practitioners

Regional Variances and Mass Participation

The movement assumed different operational characteristics based on localized grievances across the Indian subcontinent.

Peasant and Tribal Mobilization

• Awadh (Uttar Pradesh): Led by Baba Ramchandra, the peasant movement against high rents and illegal cesses (nazrana) integrated with the Non-Cooperation template.
• Eka Movement (Uttar Pradesh): Formed in late 1921 under Madari Pasi, focusing on resisting high rents and forced labor.
• Moplah Rebellion (Malabar, Kerala): Muslim tenants (Moplahs) revolted against Hindu landlords (Janmis) and British authorities, which later took a communal turn.
• Andhra Pradesh: Alluri Sitarama Raju led the tribal population in the Rampa region against British forest laws, utilizing guerrilla tactics aligned with nationalist objectives.
• Bardoli (Gujarat): No-tax campaigns were initiated against arbitrary land revenue assessments.

Working Class and Student Involvement

• Labor Strikes: Significant strikes occurred in the tea plantations of Assam, steamer services on the Padma River, and the Eastern Bengal Railway, led by nationalist figures like J.M. Sengupta.
• Student Mobilization: Subhas Chandra Bose became the principal of the National College in Calcutta, mobilizing youth to boycott government institutions.

Suspension of the Movement and the Chauri Chaura Incident

The Non-Cooperation Movement was abruptly halted due to a violent outbreak in the Gorakhpur district of the United Provinces.

The Chauri Chaura Tragedy (February 4, 1922)

A volunteer procession of Congress and Khilafat agitators was fired upon by the police. In retaliation, an angry mob set fire to the local police station, resulting in the deaths of 22 policemen.

The Bardoli Resolution (February 12, 1922)

Mahatma Gandhi, adhering to his foundational principle of absolute non-violence (Ahimsa), unilaterally suspended the Non-Cooperation Movement. The Congress Working Committee met at Bardoli and passed a resolution halting all offensive activities, including the proposed civil disobedience tax resistance campaign. Gandhi was subsequently arrested on March 10, 1922, and sentenced to six years in prison.

The Post-Non-Cooperation Split: Pro-Changers vs. No-Changers

The suspension of the movement created a tactical ideological rift within the Indian National Congress regarding the strategy to be adopted during the political lull. [Suspension of Non-Cooperation (1922)] | ————————————— | | [Pro-Changers] [No-Changers] – Advocated Council Entry – Opposed Council Entry – Formed Swaraj Party – Focused on Constructive Work – C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru – C. Rajagopalachari, Patel, Prasad

The Pro-Changers (Swarajists)

• Core Philosophy: Advocated an end to the boycott of legislative councils. They aimed to enter the councils to wreck the Government of India Act, 1919, from within and expose its constitutional limitations.
• Key Leaders: Chittaranjan Das (President) and Motilal Nehru (Secretary).
• Formation of the Swaraj Party: Following the rejection of their council entry proposal at the Gaya Session of the INC (December 1922), they formed the Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party in January 1923.

The No-Changers

• Core Philosophy: Opposed council entry and advocated continued adherence to the boycott strategy. They focused on grassroots constructive work, including the promotion of Khadi, the eradication of untouchability, and national education.
• Key Leaders: Chakravarti Rajagopalachari, Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, and M.A. Ansari.

The Swarajist Phase: Achievements and Decline

The Swarajists operated as an autonomous group within the Congress, contesting the November 1923 elections with significant success.

Electoral Performance and Legislative Achievements

• 1923 Central Legislative Assembly Elections: The Swaraj Party won 42 out of 101 elected seats. They secured clear majorities in the Central Provinces and emerged as the largest party in Bengal.
• Coalition Building: Formed alliances with Independent legislators and Liberals, including Madan Mohan Malaviya and Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
• Obstructionist Tactics: Consistently outvoted the government on budget proposals, forced the adjournment of discriminatory bills, and agitated for constitutional reforms.
• Swarajist Achievements (1925): Vithalbhai Patel was elected as the first Indian Speaker (President) of the Central Legislative Assembly in 1925.

Internal Ideological Cleavage: Responsivists vs. Non-Responsivists

By 1925, internal divisions weakened the Swaraj Party, splitting it into two factions:

• Responsivists: Advocated cooperation with the government to hold offices and secure benefits for Hindus. Key leaders included Lala Lajpat Rai, Madan Mohan Malaviya, and N.C. Kelkar.
• Non-Responsivists: Maintained the original stance of absolute obstructionism within the councils. This faction was led by Motilal Nehru.

Decline of the Swarajists

The death of C.R. Das in June 1925 severely demoralized the party cadres. Communal riots in the mid-1920s further eroded the secular coalition built by the Swarajists. By 1926, the party withdrew from the legislatures, paving the way for the reunification of the Congress factions ahead of the anti-Simon Commission agitations.

Historical Evaluation and Prelims Pointers

Critical Analytical Facts for Civil Services Selection

• Nature of the Movement: It was the first time that peasants, workers, artisans, and students participated simultaneously in a pan-Indian political movement.
• The Khilafat Link: The movement integrated pan-Islamic grievances with secular nationalist demands, resulting in a high level of Hindu-Muslim cooperation, which later declined after 1924 when Turkey became a secular republic under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.
• Shift in Congress Structure: The Nagpur Session (1920) restructured the Congress by creating a 15-member Congress Working Committee (CWC) to manage daily affairs, turning the organization into a continuous political machine. Provincial Congress Committees were reorganized on a linguistic basis.

Timeline of Crucial Events (1920–1926)