Second World War

The period between 1939 and 1945 served as the final crucible for the Indian National Movement. The intersection of global geopolitical conflict during World War II, the mass mobilization of the Quit India Movement, and the external military challenge posed by the Indian National Army (INA) collectively accelerated the British decision to transfer power.

The Second World War and India’s Forced Involvement

The outbreak of World War II in September 1939 immediately altered the trajectory of the Indian national movement, creating a constitutional deadlock between Indian nationalists and the colonial administration.

The Linlithgow Declaration and Resignation of Congress Ministries

Without consulting the Central Legislature or provincial Indian ministries, Viceroy Lord Linlithgow unilaterally declared India a belligerent party to the war on September 3, 1939.

• Congress Response: The Indian National Congress (INC) objected to India being dragged into a war ostensibly fought for democratic freedom while India itself was denied self-determination.
• Resignation: In protest, all Congress provincial ministries resigned in October–November 1939.
• Day of Deliverance: The All-India Muslim League, led by M.A. Jinnah, celebrated the resignation of Congress ministries as the “Day of Deliverance” on December 22, 1939.

The August Offer (1940)

Faced with wartime reverses in Europe, the British government sought Indian cooperation through a proposal by Lord Linlithgow on August 8, 1940.

• Key Provisions: Promise of “Dominion Status” after the war; establishment of a constituent assembly comprising mainly Indians; expansion of the Viceroy’s Executive Council.
• Rejection: The INC rejected it because it fell short of complete independence (Purna Swaraj) and gave a veto power to minorities (primarily the Muslim League) over constitutional progress.

Individual Satyagraha (1940–41)

To register protest without disrupting the British war effort against fascist powers, Mahatma Gandhi launched the Individual Satyagraha.

• Objective: To assert the right to free speech against the war.
• Key Participants: Acharya Vinoba Bhave was selected as the first Satyagrahie, followed by Jawaharlal Nehru as the second, and Brahma Datt as the third. It was also called the “Delhi Chalo” movement as satyagrahis marched toward the capital.

The Cripps Mission (March 1942)

With the rapid advance of Japanese forces through Southeast Asia and the fall of Rangoon, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill dispatched Sir Stafford Cripps to negotiate with Indian leaders.

Trivia for Prelims: Mahatma Gandhi famously described the Cripps Mission proposals as a “post-dated cheque on a crashing bank.”

The Quit India Movement (1942)

The failure of the Cripps Mission, rising inflation, and severe shortages of essential commodities during the war created widespread public discontent, culminating in the final mass movement led by Gandhi.

Resolution and Launch

• Wardha Resolution: The Congress Working Committee met at Wardha in July 1942 and passed the historic “Quit India” resolution.
• Gowalia Tank Meeting: The All India Congress Committee (AICC) ratified the resolution at Gowalia Tank, Bombay (now August Kranti Maidan) on August 8, 1942. Gandhi gave the slogan “Do or Die” (Karo ya Maro).

Operation Blue Star / Operation Zero Hour

In the early hours of August 9, 1942, the British government launched Operation Zero Hour. All top Congress leaders, including Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Vallabhbhai Patel, were arrested and imprisoned at undisclosed locations (Gandhi was detained at the Aga Khan Palace in Pune).

Underground and Parallel Governments

With the leadership jailed, the movement became decentralized, spontaneous, and violent in several pockets, marked by attacks on communication networks and government property.

Underground Leaders and Networks

• Congress Radio: Usha Mehta, Ram Manohar Lohia, and Vitthalbhai Jhaveri established a secret underground radio station to broadcast news of the movement across India.
• Central Directorate: Leaders like Jayaprakash Narayan (after escaping from Hazaribagh Jail), Aruna Asaf Ali, and Achyut Patwardhan coordinated the underground resistance.

Parallel Governments (Prati Sarkar)

Several local, independent governments were established across the country:

• Ballia (Uttar Pradesh): Established under Chittu Pandey; it managed to release arrested Congress leaders.
• Tamluk (Midnapore, Bengal): The Jatiya Sarkar (National Government) set up an armed corps called the Vidyut Vahini and engaged in relief work.
• Satara (Maharashtra): Named Prati Sarkar, organized under Y.B. Chavan and Nana Patil. It lasted the longest (until 1946) and set up people’s courts (Nyayadan Mandals).

The Indian National Army (INA) / Azad Hind Fauj

The Indian National Army represented the external armed struggle to liberate India, leveraging the geopolitical realignments of World War II.

First Phase of the INA

• Origin: The idea of the INA was originally conceived in Malaya by Mohan Singh, an Indian officer of the British Indian Army, who decided to form an army with the help of Japanese forces using Indian Prisoners of War (POWs).
• Role of Rash Behari Bose: He fled to Japan in 1915, organized the Indian Independence League, and convened the Tokyo Conference (March 1942) and Bangkok Conference (June 1942), which formally established the INA. Mohan Singh was appointed the military commander.

Second Phase: Subhas Chandra Bose and Azad Hind Fauj

• Arrival in Asia: Subhas Chandra Bose escaped from house arrest in Calcutta in 1941, traveled to Germany (meeting Hitler), and arrived in Singapore in July 1943 via a German submarine (U-180) and a Japanese submarine (I-29).
• Provisional Government: On October 21, 1943, Bose proclaimed the formation of the Provisional Government of Free India (Azad Hind Sarkar) in Singapore. It was recognized by Axis powers (Germany, Japan, Italy).
• Structure of the INA: Bose reorganized the army into specific regiments, including civilian recruits from the Indian diaspora in Southeast Asia.
  • Gandhi Regiment
  • Nehru Regiment
  • Azad Regiment
  • Rani Jhansi Regiment (An all-female combat unit led by Captain Lakshmi Swaminathan).
• Military Campaigns: The INA fought alongside Japanese forces during the Imphal and Kohima campaigns (1944). Bose hoisted the Indian national flag at Moirang in Manipur. With the defeat of Japan in 1945, the INA campaign collapsed, and Bose reportedly died in a plane crash in Taihoku, Taiwan, in August 1945.

The Red Fort Trials (1945)

At the end of the war, the British captured thousands of INA soldiers and decided to put them on public trial for treason at the Red Fort, Delhi.

The Defendants

The first trial involved three officers from different religious communities, which galvanized unified nationalist support:

• Colonel Prem Kumar Sehgal (Hindu)
• Colonel Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon (Sikh)
• Major General Shah Nawaz Khan (Muslim)

The Defense Committee

The Congress formed the INA Defence Committee to defend the accused legally. Eminent lawyers and veterans returned to legal practice for this case, including:

• Bhulabhai Desai (Lead Defense Counsel)
• Jawaharlal Nehru
• Tej Bahadur Sapru
• Kailash Nath Katju
• Asaf Ali

Outcome and Impact

Although the court-martial found the officers guilty, the mass public outrage, anti-British demonstrations, and mutinies within the Royal Indian Navy (RIN) and British Indian Army forced Viceroy Lord Wavell to use his veto power to remit the sentences of the three officers. This event demonstrated that the traditional loyalty of the Indian military to the British Crown had eroded.