Political Conditions before Conquest

The decline of the Mughal Empire following the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 created a political vacuum in the Indian subcontinent. This era was characterized by the transformation of the centralized Mughal state into a decentralized network of regional polities, often categorized into successor states, independent kingdoms, and warrior states.

Political Structures and State Categorizations

The regional polities that emerged during this period can be broadly classified into three distinct categories based on their administrative and political relationship with the Mughal center.

Successor States

These states were founded by high-ranking Mughal nobles who carved out autonomous principalities but maintained a nominal allegiance to the Mughal emperor.

• Awadh: Founded by Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk in 1722. He suppressed local rebellions and reorganized the revenue system through the ijara (revenue farming) system.
• Bengal: Established by Murshid Quli Khan, who was appointed Governor of Bengal in 1717. He transferred the capital from Dacca to Murshidabad and introduced the taccavi (agricultural loans) system to improve state revenue.
• Hyderabad: Founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah (Kilich Khan) in 1724. He consolidated control over the Deccan region without formally severing ties with the Mughal throne.

Independent Kingdoms

These polities arose primarily due to the loosening of imperial control over peripheral provinces, where local chieftains or governors asserted full sovereignty.

• Mysore: Emerged under the Wodeyar dynasty but was transformed into a powerful military state by Haidar Ali and his son Tipu Sultan mid-century.
• Rajput States: Rulers of states like Jaipur, Jodhpur, and Udaipur attempted to assert independence. Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II of Amber (Jaipur) was a prominent political and scientific figure of this era, founding the city of Jaipur and constructing astronomical observatories known as Jantar Mantars.
• Kerala: Martanda Varma consolidated the kingdom of Travancore, defeated the Dutch East India Company at the Battle of Colachel in 1741, and monopolized the pepper trade.

Warrior States

These states were established by regional groups who engaged in armed conflict against Mughal imperial authority to carve out independent territories.

• The Maratha Confederacy: The most formidable challenge to the Mughals. Under the Peshwas (Baji Rao I, Balaji Baji Rao), the Marathas expanded into North India. However, their political structure transitioned from a centralized monarchy into a loose confederacy of powerful families (Scindias, Holkars, Gaekwads, Bhonsles).
• The Sikh Kingdom: Organised into twelve autonomous military groups known as Misls. These Misls laid the foundational political structure that Maharaja Ranjit Singh later unified at the turn of the century.
• The Jat State: Established by Churaman and Badan Singh, the Jat state reached its political zenith under Suraj Mal (1756–1763) around Bharatpur, establishing a stable administrative structure near the imperial capital.

Key Political Entities on the Eve of European Conquest

Foreign Invasions and Geopolitical Vulnerability

The internal fragmentation of the subcontinent was exacerbated by devastating foreign invasions from the northwest, which shattered the remaining military prestige of the Mughal central authority.

Invasion of Nadir Shah (1739)

The Persian ruler Nadir Shah invaded India, defeating the Mughal forces at the Battle of Karnal in February 1739. The invasion resulted in the sack of Delhi, the slaughter of its inhabitants, and the plundering of the imperial treasury, including the Koh-i-Noor diamond and Shah Jahan’s Peacock Throne (Takht-i-Taus).

Invasions of Ahmad Shah Abdali

The successor to Nadir Shah in Afghanistan, Ahmad Shah Abdali (Durrani), invaded northern India multiple times between 1748 and 1767. His interventions culminated in the Third Battle of Panipat on January 14, 1761, where he decisively defeated the Maratha forces led by Sadashivrao Bhau. This battle did not decide who would rule India, but rather who would not, effectively clearing the path for the British East India Company.

Structural Weaknesses of Pre-Conquest Polities

The political landscape before the British conquest suffered from deep-seated systemic weaknesses that prevented the formation of a unified front against foreign mercantile companies.

Institutional Decline of the Mughal Center

The jagirdari crisis, characterized by a shortage of available lands (paibaqi) to distribute among an increasing number of mansabdars (nobles), led to intense factionalism within the court. The later Mughal emperors became mere puppets in the hands of powerful kingmakers like the Sayyid Brothers (Abdullah Khan and Hussain Ali Khan) and Irani/Turani factions.

Absence of Pan-Indian National Consciousness

Political loyalty during this period was localized, dynastic, or regional. Regional states routinely allied with foreign European companies against neighboring Indian powers to settle immediate territorial disputes.

Financial and Administrative Instability

Most regional states relied heavily on revenue farming (ijara), which led to the oppression of the peasantry and frequent agrarian revolts. The constant state of warfare drained state exchequers, making rulers financially dependent on merchant bankers like the Jagat Seths of Bengal.

Military Stagnation

Despite possessing large armies, Indian polities lagged behind European standards in military organization, discipline, and technology. The reliance on traditional cavalry over modern flintlock muskets, artillery tactics, and organized infantry regiments proved detrimental in engagements with European-trained forces.