Mohenjo-daro, which translates to “Mound of the Dead Men” in Sindhi, is one of the largest settlements of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization (IVC). It is located in the Larkana District of Sindh, Pakistan, on the right (western) bank of the Indus River.
Archaeological Discovery and Timeline
- Discovery: The site was first identified in 1922 by R.D. Banerji, an officer of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), who recognized the significance of the mounds while excavating a Buddhist stupa built on top of the ancient ruins.
- Major Excavations: Large-scale excavations were subsequently led by Sir John Marshall (Director-General of the ASI) in the 1920s, followed by Ernest Mackay, and later by Sir Mortimer Wheeler in 1950.
- Chronology: The city flourished during the Mature Harappan Period between 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE.
- Recognition: It was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980, becoming the first site in South Asia to receive this status.
Urban Planning and Architecture
Mohenjo-daro is renowned for its advanced civil engineering and urban planning, characterized by a gridiron pattern where streets intersected at right angles.
The Citadel (Western Mound)
The city was divided into two distinct parts. The higher, smaller western mound is known as the Citadel. It was built on a mud-brick platform and served as the administrative, religious, or public center of the city.
- The Great Bath: A large, rectangular public pool made of finely fitted baked bricks. It was made watertight using a layer of natural bitumen (tar). It features changing rooms on three sides and steps leading into the water from the north and south. It is interpreted as a structure used for ritualistic bathing.
- The Great Granary (Granary Complex): A massive structure designed with air ducts and wooden superstructure sockets to allow air circulation, preventing the spoilage of stored grain. It highlights the state-controlled agricultural surplus management.
- The Assembly Hall: A pillared hall (hypostyle hall) supported by twenty brick pillars arranged in four rows, likely used for administrative meetings or social gatherings.
The Lower Town (Eastern Mound)
The larger, lower eastern mound was residential and commercial. It accommodated the common population and followed a strict grid system.
- Residential Structures: Houses varied from single-room tenements to multi-storied courtyards. They were built using standardized burnt bricks with a uniform ratio of 1:2:4. Houses had private wells, bathrooms, and staircases leading to roofs or upper storeys.
- Privacy Controls: Main entrances of houses rarely opened directly onto the main streets, and ground floors lacked windows facing the thoroughfares, indicating a high regard for domestic privacy.
Advanced Drainage System
The drainage system of Mohenjo-daro was unparalleled in the ancient world.
- Every house was connected to the street drains.
- Street drains ran alongside the roads and were covered with loose bricks or stone slabs to facilitate periodic cleaning.
- Soak pits and brick-lined settling sumps were installed at regular intervals to collect solid waste before the wastewater discharged into larger conduits outside the city walls.
Socio-Economic and Cultural Dimensions
Agriculture and Economy
The economy was highly diversified, relying on agriculture, pastoralism, and extensive trade networks.
- Crops: Major crops cultivated included wheat, barley, sesame, mustard, and cotton (known to the Greeks as Sindon, derived from Sindh).
- Trade: Long-distance trade links existed with Mesopotamia (Sumer), Elam (Persia), and the Persian Gulf. Cuneiform inscriptions from Mesopotamia refer to trade with a region called Meluhha, which historians identify as the Indus Valley.
Art and Artifacts
Excavations at Mohenjo-daro yielded significant masterpieces of ancient South Asian art.
- The Dancing Girl: A 10.5 cm high bronze figurine cast using the cire perdue (lost-wax) technique. She is depicted standing with one hand on her hip, adorned with bangles covering her left arm, exhibiting advanced metallurgical skill.
- The Priest-King: A steatite stone sculpture of a bearded man wearing a shawl decorated with a trefoil pattern. His eyes are elongated, and he wears an armlet and a fillet around his head.
- Seals: Thousands of steatite seals have been recovered. The most famous is the Pashupati Seal, which depicts a three-faced male deity sitting in a yogic posture, surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, and a buffalo, with two deer near his feet. This is considered an early prototype of Shiva.
Key Archaeological Artifacts and Features
| Artifact/Feature | Material/Medium | Historical/Cultural Significance |
| Pashupati Seal | Steatite | Evidence of early proto-Shiva worship and animal symbolism. |
| Dancing Girl | Bronze | Mastery of lost-wax casting; highlights the prevalence of performing arts. |
| Priest-King | Steatite / Soapstone | Indicates potential existence of a religious elite or ruling class. |
| Mother Goddess Figurines | Terracotta | Points toward the worship of fertility cults and a matriarchal religious focus. |
| Standardized Weights & Measures | Chert / Agate | Cubical weights following a binary system (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32…) for lower denominations and a decimal system for higher weights. |
| Woven Cotton Fragment | Textile | Earliest known evidence of cotton textile production in the world. |
Decline and Theories of Extinction
The decline of Mohenjo-daro around 1900 BCE was gradual rather than sudden, marking the transition from the Mature to the Late Harappan phase. Several theories explain this decline:
- Flooding and River Course Changes: Regular, devastating floods of the Indus River and tectonic shifts that altered the course of the river, leaving the city starved of water and agricultural viability (supported by Robert Raikes and H.T. Lambrick).
- Ecological Degradation: Deforestation and over-exploitation of resources to bake millions of bricks led to desertification and loss of soil fertility.
- Aryan Invasion Theory: Initially proposed by Sir Mortimer Wheeler based on the discovery of human skeletons lying in the streets (interpreted as a “massacre”). This theory has been largely debunked by modern archaeologists due to a lack of anatomical evidence of military conflict and chronological mismatches.
Key Historical Trivia for Prelims
- Unlike ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, Mohenjo-daro lacks any monumental structures like palaces, temples, or royal tombs, indicating a unique socio-political setup focused on civic utility rather than royal glorification.
- There is a complete absence of offensive weapons like swords and heavy armor among the finds, suggesting a highly peaceful and trade-centric society.
- The script used on the seals found at Mohenjo-daro remains undeciphered; it is logo-syllabic and written in a Boustrophedon style (alternating directions from right-to-left and left-to-right).