Ashoka

The history of Ashoka (c. 273–232 BCE) is reconstructed using a combination of epigraphic records and heterodox literary traditions, which bridge the gap between archaeological data and historical narratives.

Epigraphic Sources

• Edicts of Ashoka: These are the first tangible deciphered written documents in Indian history. They are classified into Major Rock Edicts, Minor Rock Edicts, Separate Rock Edicts, Major Pillar Edicts, and Minor Pillar Edicts.
• Language and Scripts: The majority of the edicts are written in the Prakrit language using the Brahmi script. In the northwestern regions, they appear in the Kharosthi script (written from right to left), while bilingual inscriptions in Greek and Aramaic are found in Afghanistan (e.g., Kandahar).
• Decipherment: The Brahmi script was first deciphered in 1837 by James Prinsep, a mint master and secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, who initially identified the ruler as “Devanamapiya Piyadasi.”

Literary Traditions

• Sri Lankan Chronicles: The Dipavamsa (Chronicle of the Island) and the Mahavamsa (Great Chronicle) provide the chronological framework for Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism, his family, and his international religious missions.
• Northern Buddhist Texts: The Ashokavadana and Divyavadana contain legends detailing his early life, his psychological transformation, his ministerial councils, and his structural patronage.

Early Life, Succession Crisis, and Coronation

Ashoka’s ascension to the Magadhan throne was marked by violent internal political consolidation rather than a smooth dynastic transition.

Provincial Viceroyalties

Before becoming emperor, Ashoka served as the provincial governor (Kumara) of two strategic administrative zones under his father Bindusara:

• Ujjain (Avanti): Where he mastered regional revenue administration and married Devi, the daughter of a merchant from Vedisagiri (Vidisha), who gave birth to his children Mahinda and Sanghamitta.
• Taxila (Uttarapatha): Where he was dispatched to successfully suppress a major public revolt against oppressive local ministers (Amatyas).

The War of Succession

Following the death of Bindusara around 273 BCE, a bitter four-year war of succession broke out between Ashoka and his brothers, primarily Prince Susima, the eldest son and preferred heir.

• The Ministerial Alliance: Ashoka secured the throne with the assistance of Radhagupta, the Prime Minister (Maha-amatya) of Bindusara’s court, who provided the necessary military and administrative backing.
• The Fratricide Narrative: Sri Lankan chronicles state that Ashoka killed 99 of his brothers to eliminate rivals, sparing only his youngest full brother, Vitasoka (Tissa). Due to this conflict, his formal coronation (Abhisheka) was delayed for four years until 269 BCE.

The Kalinga War and Transformation to Dharmashoka

The Kalinga war fought in Ashoka’s 8th regnal year (c. 261 BCE) altered the geopolitical strategy of the Mauryan Empire, leading to the abandonment of military expansion.

Historical Context and Conquest

Kalinga (modern coastal Odisha) controlled the vital land and sea trade routes connecting the Gangetic valley with South India and South-East Asia. Ashoka invaded the region, resulting in a conflict that caused over 100,000 casualties, 150,000 deportations, and comparable numbers dying from post-war famine and disease.

Philosophical Transition

The human cost of the campaign caused Ashoka deep remorse. This transformation is documented in Major Rock Edict XIII, which records his renunciation of warfare. He replaced the traditional Mauryan geopolitical doctrine of Bherighosha (war drum conquest) with Dhammaghosha (conquest through righteousness/Dhamma).

Conversion to Buddhism

Ashoka did not adopt Buddhism immediately after the war. According to Minor Rock Edict I, he was initially a lay worshipper (Upasaka) for more than two and a half years without showing great zeal. He was subsequently introduced to the Theravada doctrine by the monk Nigrodha (his nephew) or Upagupta, after which he entered the Sangha and visited the Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya (Sambodhi), replacing royal pleasure tours (Viharayatas) with righteous pilgrimage tours (Dhammayatas).

The Concept and Policy of Ashoka’s Dhamma

Ashoka’s Dhamma was not a new religion or a synthesis of existing theological schools, but a state-sponsored ethical code intended to maintain social order across a diverse empire.

Core Tenets of Dhamma

The specific principles of Dhamma are outlined across his Major Rock Edicts:

• Social Ethics: Obedience to parents (Sushrusa), respect for teachers, and proper courtesy toward ascetics, Brahmins, servants, and the poor.
• Ahimsa (Non-violence): The complete prohibition of animal sacrifices (Alpa-prana) and the systematic regulation of animals slaughtered for the imperial kitchens (Major Rock Edict I).
• Religious Tolerance: Honoring all religious sects to enhance the spiritual essence (Sara-vaddhi) of all doctrines, explicitly prohibiting the glorification of one’s own sect at the expense of others (Major Rock Edict XII).
• Civic Responsibility: Moderation in spending (Alpa-vyayata) and moderation in storing wealth (Alpa-bhandata).

Administrative Machinery for Dhamma

• Dhamma-Mahamatras: In his 14th regnal year, Ashoka created a new class of high-ranking civil officials called Dhamma-Mahamatras. Their duties included promoting Dhamma, preventing arbitrary imprisonment, protecting judicial rights, and distributing state charity across all religious groups, including Ajivikas, Jains, and Brahmins.
• Rajukas: Senior judicial and land revenue officers who were granted independent authority to dispense justice and punishments, ensuring uniformity in judicial procedures (Danda-samata) and legal penalties (Vyavahara-samata).

The Edicts: Classification and Core Content

The inscriptions of Ashoka are categorized based on the surfaces onto which they were carved and their specific administrative goals.

Complete Summary of Major Rock Edicts

Separate Rock Edicts

Found at Dhauli and Jaugada (Odisha), these replaced Major Rock Edicts XI, XII, and XIII in the newly conquered territory of Kalinga. They contain the paternal statement: “All men are my children” (Sabe Munise Paja Mama), instructing judicial officers to avoid arbitrary imprisonment or torture.

Major Pillar Edicts

These seven edicts are carved on monolithic polished sandstone pillars. Topra and Meerut variants were later relocated to Delhi by Sultan Firoz Shah Tughlaq in the 14th century CE. They focus on the internal consolidation of Dhamma, state-sponsored environmental laws, and the planting of banyan trees and digging of wells every half-kos along major imperial trade routes.

Third Buddhist Council and Global Missions

Ashoka acted as an imperial patron of the Buddhist Sangha, intervening to standardize doctrine and resolve internal schisms.

The Third Buddhist Council (c. 250 BCE)

To purge the Sangha of corruption, false monks, and doctrinal factions, Ashoka convened the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra. The council was held under the presidency of the elder monk Moggaliputta Tissa. It led to the compilation of the Kathavatthu (Points of Controversy) to complete the Theravada Abhidhamma Pitaka.

Foreign Dhamma Missions

Following the council, Ashoka dispatched specialized missions to spread Dhamma and Buddhism. These missions crossed the boundaries of the empire into neighboring states.

Epigraphic References to Foreign Rulers (Major Rock Edict XIII)

Ashoka records the success of his Dhamma missions by naming five contemporary Hellenistic rulers:

• Amtiyoga: Antiochus II Theos of Syria.
• Tulamaya: Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt.
• Antekina: Antigonus II Gonatas of Macedonia.
• Maka: Magas of Cyrene.
• Alikasudara: Alexander of Epirus (or Alexander of Corinth).

Architecture, Art, and Engineering Innovations

Ashokan art represents a transition from wooden and perishable mediums to permanent stone architecture, introducing distinctive stylistic techniques.

Monolithic Pillars

Carved from Chunar sandstone quarries near Varanasi, these pillars feature a characteristic mirror-like finish known as Mauryan polish. Each pillar consists of two primary components: a single monolithic shaft and a separate carved capital attached by a metal copper dowel.

• The Sarnath Capital: Features four lions sitting back-to-back atop an abacus carved with a bull, a horse, an elephant, and a lion separated by 24-spoke wheels (Dharmachakras). This composition was adopted as the National Emblem of India in 1950.
• The Rampurva Capital: Noted for its realistic bull capital, reflecting an evolution in animal sculpture.

Stupa Construction

Ashoka is credited with expanding the initial distribution of the Buddha’s relics. He opened seven of the original eight relics chambers (Saririkadhātu) and redistributed them into stupas built across the subcontinent. He founded the core brick structure of the Great Stupa at Sanchi and the Dharmarajika Stupa at Sarnath.

Rock-Cut Architecture

Ashoka initiated the tradition of rock-cut cave architecture by excavating the Barabar Caves (specifically the Sudama and Lomas Rishi caves) in the Jehanabad district of Bihar. These caves were gifted to the ascetics of the Ajivika sect, demonstrating his state policy of religious tolerance.

Historical Facts and Trivia for UPSC Prelims

Deciphering the Maski Inscription

For decades, the edicts referred only to Devanamapiya Piyadasi (Beloved of the Gods, He who looks with affection). In 1915, the gold-mining engineer C. Beadon discovered the Maski Minor Rock Edict in Karnataka, which explicitly read: “Devanamapiya Asoka”. This discovery confirmed that the legends of Ashoka matched the anonymous ruler behind the epigraphic records. This connection was later supported by inscriptions found at Gujjarra, Nittur, and Udegolam.

The Queen’s Edict (Allahabad-Kosam Pillar)

This inscription provides the only epigraphic record of an individual queen of Ashoka. It records the charitable donations of his second queen, Karuvaki, mother of Prince Tivara, instructing state officials to credit all gifts made by her to her personal treasury.

The Bhabru-Bairat Rock Edict

Dispatched from Rajasthan, this edict provides explicit evidence of Ashoka’s personal faith. In it, he declares his reverence for the Buddhist triad—the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha—and lists specific canonical texts that he recommended monks and laypersons study regularly.

The Rummindei Pillar Inscription

Located in Lumbini, Nepal, this inscription provides an epigraphic reference for the birthplace of Gautama Buddha. It records that Ashoka visited the site in his 20th regnal year, performed sacrifices, erected a stone pillar, and modified the local taxation structure. He reduced the land tax (Bhaga) to one-eighth (Atthabhagiya) and completely waived the religious cess (Bali) for the village.