Xuanzang’s account

Xuanzang (also Romanized as Hiuen Tsang), popularly known as the “Prince of Pilgrims,” was a Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator who visited India during the 7th century CE. Leaving the Tang Dynasty capital Chang’an in 629 CE against imperial decrees, he traversed the Silk Road via Central Asia to reach India in 630 CE. He spent nearly fifteen years (630–645 CE) exploring the Indian subcontinent, with a significant portion of his stay spent under the direct patronage of King Harshavardhana of the Pushyabhuti dynasty.

The Si-Yu-Ki as a Historical Source

Xuanzang compiled his comprehensive observations in the monumental text titled Si-Yu-Ki (Buddhist Records of the Western World). Translated into Chinese upon his return, this work serves as an indispensable primary geographical, political, socioeconomic, and religious source for the transition period between the classical Gupta era and the early medieval regional kingdoms of India.

Political and Administrative Observations

The Imperial State of Kannauj

Xuanzang provides an eyewitness account of the shifting political gravity of Northern India from Pataliputra to Kanyakubja (Kannauj). He details the fortification of Kannauj, describing it as a prosperous city extending four miles along the Ganges, packed with beautiful gardens, multi-tiered structures, and massive military garrisons. He records the unique dual coronation of Harshavardhana (Siladitya), who ruled over the combined territories of Thanesar and Kannauj.

Decentralized Governance and Feudal Layout

The Si-Yu-Ki highlights the highly feudalized and decentralized nature of the Post-Gupta state machinery. Xuanzang observed that the central state relied extensively on the Samanta (feudal lord) system for maintaining regional order and supplying military contingents during imperial campaigns.

Fiscal Administration and the Fourfold Revenue Model

Xuanzang noted that public administration was remarkably economical and the crown lands were managed with minimal state interference. He documented a distinct fourfold division of the state’s public revenue:

• First Quarter: Allocated for state expenses, imperial ceremonies, and public works.
• Second Quarter: Utilized for compensating the civil service, ministers, and state officials.
• Third Quarter: Reserved for rewarding high intellectual achievements and scientific research.
• Fourth Quarter: Expended as charity and endowments to various religious institutions and sects.

Penal Codes and Judicial Administration

The text reveals that the penal code under Harsha was far more severe than the relatively lenient system recorded by Faxian during the Imperial Gupta period. Xuanzang recorded the following judicial practices:

• Bodily Mutilation: Crimes against the state, treason, and filial unfaithfulness were punished with life imprisonment or the amputation of the nose, ears, hands, or feet.
• Minor Offenses: Settled using monetary fines or banishment to the forests.
• Trial by Ordeal: Guilt or innocence was determined through formal trials by ordeal, which included placing the accused in water, holding red-hot iron, drinking poison, or weighing against stone.

Socio-Economic Realities in 7th-Century India

The Agrarian Pivot and Urban Decay

Xuanzang’s records track the widespread commercial contraction and urban de-urbanization across Northern India. He states that historic imperial cities like Pataliputra and Vaishali had fallen into near-total decay, reducing them to small agrarian towns. Conversely, cities like Kannauj, Prayaga, and Thanesar emerged as fortified administrative centers. The economy was heavily localized, driven by agricultural production and the system of tax-free land grants (Agraharas) issued to temples and state officials in lieu of cash salaries.

Social Hierarchy and the Proliferation of Castes

The Si-Yu-Ki provides a structured overview of the early medieval Indian caste system (Varna-Jati complex):

• The Four Main Varnas: The text acknowledges the traditional supremacy of the Brahmins and Kshatriyas, followed by the Vaishyas (merchants and traders) and Shudras (predominantly agricultural laborers).
• The Rise of Sub-Castes: Xuanzang noted the emergence of numerous occupational sub-castes (Jatis) tied to hereditary trades.
• System of Untouchability: The text provides clear evidence of spatial segregation. Marginalized communities like the Chandalas, butchers, executioners, and scavengers were forced to reside outside the city walls. They were required to sound wooden clappers or signal their presence when entering urban gates to prevent upper-caste contamination.

Trade Practices and Monetary Media

Due to the decline of long-distance maritime trade with the Western Roman Empire, gold coinage had become exceedingly scarce. Xuanzang noted that regular local trade was conducted primarily through the barter system, supplemented by the use of sea cowries and small silver or copper tokens for daily marketplace transactions.

Religious Transitions and Educational Centers

The Resurgence of Mahayana Buddhism

Xuanzang’s primary mission was the collection of authentic Sanskrit Buddhist manuscripts and the visitation of holy sites. He documented that while Theravada (Hinayana) sects still held sway in peripheral zones like Sindh and Sri Lanka, Mahayana Buddhism enjoyed peak imperial patronage in Central India under Harsha. He described a peaceful but competitive coexistence between Buddhist monks and “heretics” (Brahmins and Jain Digambaras).

Account of the Great Assemblies

Xuanzang participated directly in the grand state-sponsored religious assemblies organized by Harsha:

• The Kannauj Assembly (643 CE): Convoked by Harsha to honor Xuanzang and demonstrate the superiority of Mahayana doctrines. It was attended by 20 tributary kings, 3,000 Buddhist monks, and 1,000 scholars from Nalanda.
• The Prayaga Assembly (Maha Moksha Parishad): Held at the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna, Xuanzang witnessed Harsha distribute his entire multi-year accumulation of royal treasury wealth to monks, ascetics, and the destitute over a period of 75 days.

Description of the Nalanda Mahavihara

Xuanzang spent several years studying and teaching at the Nalanda University in Bihar under the guidance of the venerable chancellor Shilabhadra. His account provides the most detailed description of the institution’s zenith:

• Scale and Demographics: The university accommodated over 10,000 students and 1,500 faculty members drawn from all across Asia.
• Curriculum: Education extended beyond Buddhist scriptures to include secular subjects like Sanskrit grammar, Vedic literature, logic (Hetuvidya), medicine (Chikitsavidya), and astronomy.
• Economic Endowment: The entire daily maintenance, food, and clothing expenses of the university were covered by the revenues of over 100 villages exempted from state taxes by King Harsha.

Epigraphic and Geopolitical Correlations

Key Historical Trivia for UPSC Prelims

The Theft of Manuscripts and the Return Journey

When Xuanzang returned to China via the Pamir Mountains in 645 CE, he carried a massive collection of 657 distinct Sanskrit texts packed on 20 horses, along with 150 relics of the Buddha. He dedicated the remainder of his life to translating these manuscripts into Chinese at the Great Wild Goose Pagoda in Chang’an.

The Account of the Marathas

Xuanzang provides a rare contemporary character assessment of the people of Maharashtra under Chalukyan rule. He described them as individuals who were deeply grateful for favors, relentless in avenging insults, and fiercely committed to their military commanders, reflecting the high martial standards recorded in the Aihole Inscription.

Nomenclature for India

In his Chinese transcriptions, Xuanzang rejected older Chinese phonetic terms for India like Tianzhu or Shendu. He standardized the term Yindu, which he poetically linked to the Sanskrit word Indu (Moon), symbolizing the spiritual illumination that India provided to the rest of Asia.

The Harsha-Pulakeshin Conflict Context

While the Aihole Inscription of 634 CE explicitly records Pulakeshin II’s military victory over Harsha, Xuanzang corroborates this geopolitical boundary line. He noted in the Si-Yu-Ki that despite Harsha’s vast army and continuous military campaigns across the north, he was completely unable to subdue or cross into the territories of the southern monarch Pulakeshin II.