Medieval Literature

The medieval period in India (8th to 18th Century CE) witnessed a radical linguistic transition from classical languages like Sanskrit, Arabic, and Persian to regional vernaculars. This literary decentralization was driven by the populist, democratic socio-religious movements of Bhakti and Sufism. By rejecting rigid liturgical frameworks, these spiritual movements democratized access to texts, standardizing scripts, creating new literary genres, and preserving historical, social, and economic data.

The Bhakti Literary Movement: Traditions, Languages, and Canonical Texts

The Bhakti movement is broadly divided into two theological frameworks: Saguna (devotion to a manifested deity with attributes) and Nirguna (devotion to a formless, non-dual divine reality). This divide shaped the linguistic preferences, metaphors, and literary styles of the era.

The Southern Pioneers: Alvars and Nayanars

The foundation of vernacular devotional literature was laid in South India between the 6th and 10th centuries by the Tamil Alvars (Vaishnavite saints) and Nayanars (Shaivite saints), whose compositions challenged classical Sanskrit hegemony.

• Nalayira Divya Prabandham: A compilation of 4,000 verses composed by the twelve Alvars, standardized in the 10th century by Nathamuni. It is traditionally elevated as the Dravida Veda. Notable contributors included Andal, the only female Alvar saint, known for her intense bridal mysticism in Thiruppavai.
• Tirumurai: A twelve-volume compendium of Shaivite hymns composed by the Nayanars, compiled by Nambi Andar Nambi. The first seven volumes, containing hymns by Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar, are known as the Tevaram. The eighth volume contains the Tiruvasakam composed by Manikkavasagar.

The Saguna and Nirguna Literary Divide in North India

Eastern and Western Regional Adaptations

• Assam (Neo-Vaishnavite Literature): Srimanta Sankardev pioneered Brajavali (an artificial literary language blending Assamese and Maithili). He created the Ankiya Naat (one-act plays) and composed the Borgeet (devotional songs). He also authored the Kirtan Ghosha, a core text for the Ekasarana Dharma.
• Maharashtra (Varkari Movement): The Varkari saints popularized the Abhang (short, devotional lyric poems sung in Marathi). Key literary contributors included Sant Dnyaneshwar (who authored the Dnyaneshwari, a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita), Sant Namdev (whose verses were later incorporated into the Sikh Adi Granth), Sant Eknath, and Sant Tukaram.
• Odisha (Panchasakha Tradition): Balarama Dasa, Jagannatha Dasa, Achyutananda Dasa, Ananta Dasa, and Yasovanta Dasa translated epics into Odia. Jagannatha Dasa’s Odia Bhagavata played a central role in standardizing the regional language.

Sufi Literary Corpus: Metaphors, Genres, and Vernacular Integration

Sufi literature in medieval India evolved along two distinct parallel paths: elite courtly Persian chronicles and localized vernacular poetry designed for the common masses.

The Malfuzat Archive

Malfuzat refers to the systematically recorded table-talks, discourses, and oral conversations of Sufi masters. This genre provides primary historical data regarding the daily socio-economic lives of ordinary citizens during the Delhi Sultanate.

• Fawa’id al-Fu’ad: Compiled by the poet Amir Hasan Sijzi Dehlvi, this text preserves the daily discourses of the Chishti saint Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya. It established Malfuzat as a standardized genre of prose literature in North India.
• Siyar-ul-Auliya: Authored by Sayyid Muhammad bin Mubarak Kirmani (Amir Khwurd), it provides a comprehensive biographical and literary history of the early Chishti saints in India.

The Premakhyan (Sufi Romantic Epics)

The Premakhyan tradition consists of allegorical, romantic epics composed by Sufi poets using regional languages like Awadhi and Hindavi. These texts adapted indigenous Indian folklore, themes, and motifs to illustrate Sufi concepts of divine love (Ishq), the longing soul (Virahini), and ultimate union with God.

• Chandayan (1379 CE): Composed by Maulana Daud in Awadhi, this text is recognized as the earliest definitive work in the North Indian Premakhyan tradition.
• Padmavat (1540 CE): Written by Malik Muhammad Jayasi in pure Awadhi, it uses the historical siege of Chittor to present a spiritual allegory where Chittor represents the human body, Padmini represents divine wisdom, and Alauddin Khalji represents worldly desire (Nafs).
• Other Major Premakhyans: Qutban’s Mrigavati (1503 CE) and Manjhan’s Madhumalati (1545 CE), both written in Awadhi, used local imagery to teach mystical concepts.

Regional Sufi Verses

• Punjabi Sufi Literature: Baba Farid (Fariduddin Ganjshakar) pioneered Punjabi Sufi poetry, using local agrarian metaphors. His spiritual verses (Shaloks) were highly respected by the early Gurus and were later compiled into the Adi Granth. This tradition was later expanded by Bulleh Shah and Sultan Bahu.
• Dakhni Sufi Literature: In the Deccan plateau, Sufi writers used Dakhni (an early variant of Urdu infused with Telugu, Kannada, and Marathi vocabulary). This language was used to write Chakkinama (songs sung while working at grinding stones) and Shadinama (wedding songs), helping spread mystical ideas among rural working-class women.

Court Literature and Imperial Historiography

Parallel to the religious movements, the courts of the Delhi Sultanate, the Mughal Empire, and regional kingdoms sponsored an extensive administrative, historical, and scientific literary canon, primarily written in Persian.

Elite Chronicles and Memoirs

Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi (Ziauddin Barani)

A major primary historical prose text of the Delhi Sultanate, it provides a detailed analysis of the political, economic, and market control reforms implemented by Sultan Alauddin Khalji and Sultan Firoz Shah Tughlaq.

Khaza’in-ul-Futuh (Amir Khusrau)

Written in ornate Persian prose, this chronicle documents the military campaigns, architectural projects, and administrative systems of Sultan Alauddin Khalji, specifically detailing his expansion into the Deccan.

Baburnama (Tuzuk-i-Baburi)

The personal memoirs of Emperor Babur, written in Chagatai Turkic. It provides detailed, systematic observations regarding the physical geography, flora, fauna, irrigation networks, and socio-economic conditions of early 16th-century Hindustan. It was later translated into Persian by Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan as the Baburnama.

Ain-i-Akbari and Akbarnama (Abu’l-Fazl)

A comprehensive three-volume administrative and political history of Emperor Akbar’s reign. The third volume, the Ain-i-Akbari, provides statistical data regarding revenue systems, crop yields, administrative divisions (Subahs), and the cultural and philosophical traditions of India.

Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh (Abdul Qadir Badauni)

A critical contemporary history of the Mughal court, offering an alternative, orthodox perspective on Akbar’s socio-religious experiments and the development of the Din-i-Ilahi.

The Imperial Translation Bureau (Maktab Khana)

Under the patronage of Emperor Akbar and later Prince Dara Shikoh, the Mughal state established a formal bureau to systematically translate classical Sanskrit texts into Persian, aiming to bridge cultural divides and build an intellectual archive.

• Razmnama: The official Persian translation of the Mahabharata, completed by a team of scholars including Faizi, Naqib Khan, and Badauni.
• Tarjuma-i-Ramayan: The Persian translation of Valmiki’s Ramayana, executed by Abdul Qadir Badauni.
• Sirr-i-Akbar (The Great Secret): Translated by Prince Dara Shikoh in 1657 CE, this compilation translated fifty-two classical Upanishads into Persian. Dara Shikoh argued that the roots of monotheism could be found within these ancient Indian texts.

Literary Material Technologies: Preservation, Scripts, and Scriptoriums

The dramatic expansion of medieval Indian literature was supported by key technical advancements in materials chemistry, text preservation, and script development.

Paper-Making and Scriptorium Technology

The widespread adoption of paper-making technology, introduced via Central Asia during the Delhi Sultanate, gradually replaced palm leaves (Tala-Patra) and birch bark (Bhurja-Patra) as the primary materials for long-form texts.

• Materials: Scriptoriums utilized locally manufactured cotton-based paper known as Tulapat.
• Preservation Chemistry: To safeguard paper manuscripts from intense tropical humidity and wood-boring insects, scholars added Harital (yellow arsenic sulfide) to their black lampblack or organic water inks. This chemical compound acted as an effective, long-term insect repellent, ensuring the preservation of texts within institutional libraries (Bhandaras and Kitab Khanas).

Script Standardization and Standardization of Writing

Gurmukhi Script

Standardized and popularized by Guru Angad, the second Sikh Guru, to accurately record the compositions of Guru Nanak and other saints, bypassing the complex configurations of older regional scripts like Landa.

Grantha Script

Widely used in South India to copy and preserve Sanskrit legal, philosophical, and astrological texts within temple college libraries.

Nasta’liq and Shikasta Scripts

The dominant calligraphy styles used for Persian administrative work during the Sultanate and Mughal eras. Nasta’liq was a highly structured, elegant script used for formal manuscripts, while Shikasta was a cursive, rapid variant used for legal contracts, revenue records, and imperial decrees.

Compilations, Technical Treatises, and Lexicons

Kitab-i-Nauras (Ibrahim Adil Shah II)

A compilation of devotional songs composed by the ruler of the Bijapur Sultanate in Dakhni Urdu. The texts are organized according to classical Indian Ragas, blending Hindu iconography with Sufi mysticism.

Amuktamalyada (Krishnadevaraya)

An epic poem composed by the Vijayanagara Emperor in classical Telugu. It narrates the life story of the Alvar saint Andal and outlines medieval south Indian principles of statecraft, economic management, and maritime trade.

Khaliq Bari (Amir Khusrau)

A rhymed, multilingual dictionary containing Arabic, Persian, and Hindavi words, designed to help local administrative officials and common citizens learn administrative terms.

Fatawa-i-Alamgiri

A comprehensive legal compilation ordered by Emperor Aurangzeb, created by a committee of Islamic scholars led by Shaikh Nizam. It standardized state administrative and judicial procedures across the Mughal Empire.

Chronological Milestone of Medieval Indian Literature

10th Century CE

Compilation of the Nalayira Divya Prabandham by Nathamuni and the Tirumurai by Nambi Andar Nambi, establishing the vernacular foundations of the southern Bhakti movement.

1310-1315 CE

Amir Khusrau composes his major historical and romantic Masnavis (Kiran-us-Sadain, Ashiqa), popularizing the Hindavi idiom.

1379 CE

Maulana Daud writes the Chandayan, creating the structural blueprint for the North Indian Premakhyan tradition.

Early 14th Century CE

Sant Dnyaneshwar authors the Dnyaneshwari in Maharashtra, pioneering the use of Marathi for deep philosophical commentaries.

1540 CE

Malik Muhammad Jayasi completes the Padmavat, marking a high point in allegorical Awadhi literature.

1574 CE

Goswami Tulsidas begins composing the Ramcharitmanas in Awadhi, transforming the accessibility of the Rama narrative across North India.

1604 CE

Guru Arjan, the fifth Sikh Guru, compiles the Adi Granth (later known as the Guru Granth Sahib), creating a major syncretic repository by combining the verses of Sikh Gurus with the writings of Hindu Bhakti saints (Kabir, Namdev, Ravidas) and Sufi mystics (Baba Farid).

1657 CE

Prince Dara Shikoh completes the Sirr-i-Akbar, translating fifty-two Upanishads into Persian.

Granular Trivia for UPSC Prelims

• The Lost Verses of Namdev: Sant Namdev of Maharashtra composed verses not only in Marathi but also in early Hindi. His deep spiritual influence in northern India is highlighted by the inclusion of over sixty of his hymns in the Sikh Adi Granth.
• The Concept of Chhap: Medieval Bhakti and Sufi poets used a signature device known as a Chhap or Bhanita in the final lines of their poems. By embedding their own name into the verse (e.g., “Kahat Kabir suno bhai sadho”), authors verified the authenticity of their work, creating an early system of intellectual property protection within oral traditions.
• The Origin of Khayal: Amir Khusrau’s courtly poetry and musical compositions laid the foundations for the Khayal style of singing. This style offered a flexible alternative to the rigid, temple-based Dhrupad style, enabling greater creative expression during devotional and courtly gatherings.
• The Sanchi-Pat Leaf Technique: In medieval Assam, manuscripts were written not only on paper but also on leaves made from the bark of the Sanchi (Aquilaria malaccensis) tree. The bark underwent a complex process of curing, smoothing, and lacquering to make it highly durable and resistant to insects before text was applied.
• The Polyglot Nature of Kabir’s Sadhukkari: The language of Kabir is historically described as Sadhukkari or Khichdi because it lacks a uniform grammatical structure. Instead, it combined words from Khari Boli, Marwari, Awadhi, Punjabi, Persian, and Arabic, allowing his verses to pass easily through regional trading networks.