Jainism is one of the world’s oldest religions, fundamentally rooted in the philosophy of self-reliance and non-violence (Ahimsa). It is a “Nastika” or heterodox school of Indian philosophy, as it rejects the authority of the Vedas. The word ‘Jain’ is derived from Jina (Conqueror), referring to those who have conquered their inner passions and reached a state of infinite knowledge.
The Lineage of the 24 Tirthankaras
Jain tradition holds that the faith is eternal and has been revealed through 24 Tirthankaras (ford-makers) across different eras. For UPSC Prelims, the following Tirthankaras and their symbols are essential:
| Order | Tirthankara | Symbol | Key Facts |
| 1st | Rishabhadeva (Adinath) | Bull | Mentioned in the Rig Veda and Vishnu Purana; father of Bharat Chakravartin. |
| 2nd | Ajitanath | Elephant | Second Tirthankara of the current time cycle. |
| 22nd | Neminath | Conch | Considered a contemporary and cousin of Lord Krishna. |
| 23rd | Parshvanath | Serpent | Born in Varanasi; propounded the four vows (Chaturyama Dharma). |
| 24th | Vardhamana Mahavira | Lion | The last Tirthankara; added the 5th vow (Brahmacharya). |
The Life of Vardhamana Mahavira (540–468 BCE)
Mahavira was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha and played a pivotal role in the systematic expansion of Jainism.
- Birth: Born at Kundagrama near Vaishali (Bihar) in the Jnatrika clan. His father was Siddhartha and mother was Trishala (sister of Lichchhavi chief Chetaka).
- Renunciation: Left his home at age 30. After 12 years of intense penance, he attained Kaivalya (omniscience) at Jrimbhikagrama on the banks of river Rijupalika.
- Mahaparinirvana: Passed away at the age of 72 at Pavapuri (near modern Rajgir).
Core Philosophical Tenets and Doctrines
Jain philosophy is distinct for its scientific approach to the soul and matter, emphasizing that every living and non-living object possesses a soul (Jiva).
The Three Jewels (Triratna)
The path to liberation consists of the simultaneous application of:
- Samyak Darshana (Right Faith): Belief in the truth of the Tirthankaras.
- Samyak Gyana (Right Knowledge): Understanding the nature of the universe without doubt.
- Samyak Charitra (Right Conduct): Implementing the five great vows.
The Five Great Vows (Pancha Mahavrata)
- Ahimsa: Non-violence (the most fundamental vow).
- Satya: Truthfulness.
- Asteya: Non-stealing.
- Aparigraha: Non-attachment/Non-possession.
- Brahmacharya: Chastity (Added by Mahavira; laypeople follow Anuvratas or minor vows).
Epistemology: Anekantavada and Syadvada
- Anekantavada: The doctrine of “many-sidedness” or manifold aspects of reality.
- Syadvada: The theory of conditioned predication, suggesting that all judgments are relative and conditional (the “Perhaps” philosophy).
- Nayavada: The theory of partial viewpoints.
The Great Schism: Digambara and Svetambara
Around 300 BCE, a famine in Magadha led to a migration of Jain monks under Bhadrabahu to South India (Shravanabelagola), while those under Sthulabhadra stayed in the North. This resulted in the split:
| Feature | Digambara (Sky-clad) | Svetambara (White-clad) |
| Monasticism | Monks remain naked; discard all possessions. | Monks wear simple white garments. |
| Scriptures | Reject the authenticity of the 12 Angas. | Accept the 12 Angas and Agamas. |
| Women | Believe women cannot achieve liberation in that birth. | Believe women are equally capable of liberation. |
| Mahavira | Believe Mahavira never married. | Believe Mahavira married Yashoda and had a daughter. |
| Sub-sects | Terapanthi, Bisapanthi. | Sthanakvasi, Murtipujaka, Terapanthi. |
The Jain Councils
The councils were instrumental in compiling the oral teachings of Mahavira into written form.
- First Council (3rd Century BCE): Held at Pataliputra, presided over by Sthulabhadra. It resulted in the compilation of the 12 Angas.
- Second Council (512 CE): Held at Vallabhi (Gujarat), presided over by Devardhi Kshamasramana. It finalized the compilation of the 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.
Jain Literature and Language
Initially, Jain teachings were preserved in Ardhamagadhai (a form of Prakrit) to reach the masses, though later works were written in Sanskrit, Kannada, and Tamil.
- Agamas: The primary canonical texts comprising Angas, Upangas, Prakirnas, Chhedasutras, and Malasutras.
- Kalpasutra: A biography of the Tirthankaras written by Bhadrabahu (in Sanskrit).
- Gathasaptashati: Early Prakrit literature.
- Tamil Epics: The Silappadikaram and Jivaka Chintamani have strong Jain influences.
Art, Architecture, and Cultural Heritage
Jainism significantly enriched Indian architecture through cave temples, monolithic statues, and intricate marble temples.
Major Cave Temples
- Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves (Odisha): Built during the reign of King Kharavela (Hathigumpha inscription).
- Ellora Caves (Maharashtra): Caves 30 to 34 are dedicated to Jainism (Indra Sabha and Jagannath Sabha).
- Sittanavasal Caves (Tamil Nadu): Famous for its early medieval Jain frescoes.
Temple Architecture and Statues
- Dilwara Temples (Mount Abu, Rajasthan): Renowned for exquisite marble carvings (Vimal Vasahi and Luna Vasahi temples).
- Gomateshwara Statue (Shravanabelagola, Karnataka): A massive 57-foot monolithic statue of Bahubali (son of Rishabhadeva), where the Mahamastakabhisheka festival is held every 12 years.
- Ranakpur Temple (Rajasthan): Known for its “Chaumukha” (four-faced) design and 1,444 uniquely carved pillars.
- Palitana Temples (Gujarat): Located on Shatrunjaya Hill; considered the most sacred pilgrimage site for Svetambaras.
Jain Trivia for UPSC Prelims
- Sallekhana (Santhara): The religious practice of voluntarily fasting to death. Chandragupta Maurya famously performed this at Shravanabelagola.
- Royal Patrons: Bimbisara, Ajatashatru (early life), Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela of Kalinga, and the Rashtrakuta and Kadamba dynasties of the South.
- Symbolism: The Jain emblem contains the palm with a wheel (Ahimsa Chakra), the swastika representing the four realms of rebirth, and the three dots representing the Triratna.
- Navpad Oli: A nine-day period of fasting and prayer observed twice a year.