Orthodox Schools of Indian Philosophy

In Indian philosophy, schools are classified as Astika (Orthodox) if they accept the authority of the Vedas. These schools represent a systematic attempt to explain the nature of existence, the self, and the path to liberation (Moksha). While they differ in their metaphysical and epistemological approaches, they share common goals: the removal of suffering and the realization of ultimate truth.

Evolution of the Shad-Darshanas

The six orthodox schools, known as the Shad-Darshanas, evolved through centuries of debate and commentary. They are often grouped into three pairs based on their shared philosophical affinities: Nyaya-Vaisheshika, Samkhya-Yoga, and Mimamsa-Vedanta.

Samkhya: The Dualistic Foundation

Samkhya is considered one of the oldest schools and provides the metaphysical basis for many other systems.

Metaphysics of Purusha and Prakriti

• Dualism: It posits that the universe is composed of two independent realities: Purusha (pure consciousness, male principle) and Prakriti (primordial matter, female principle).
• The Three Gunas: Prakriti consists of three inherent qualities: Sattva (purity/light), Rajas (activity/passion), and Tamas (darkness/inertia). Imbalance in these Gunas leads to the evolution of the material world.
• Satkaryavada: This is the Samkhya theory of causation, which asserts that the effect pre-exists in the cause (e.g., oil exists in the seed).

Liberation through Discernment

• Salvation is achieved through Viveka-Jnana (discriminative knowledge), where the Purusha realizes its complete independence from the entanglements of Prakriti.

Yoga: The Science of Meditation

Yoga is the practical counterpart to Samkhya. While Samkhya provides the theory, Yoga provides the methodology to achieve liberation.

The Ashtanga Yoga Path

Patanjali’s “Eight-Fold Path” is designed to still the mind (Chitta-Vritti-Nirodha):

• External Discipline: Yama (restraints) and Niyama (observances).
• Physical Preparation: Asana (posture) and Pranayama (breath control).
• Internalization: Pratyahara (withdrawal of senses).
• Mental Focus: Dharana (concentration), Dhyana (meditation), and Samadhi (absorption/liberation).

Concept of Ishwara

Unlike early Samkhya, which was largely silent on God, Yoga introduces Ishwara—not as a creator, but as a perfect soul that serves as a model for practitioners to concentrate upon.

Nyaya: The School of Logic

Nyaya focuses on the conditions of correct thinking and the means of acquiring valid knowledge (Pramana).

The Four Pramanas

Nyaya recognizes four valid sources of knowledge:

• Pratyaksha (Perception): Knowledge gained through the five senses.
• Anumana (Inference): Reaching a conclusion from a known premise (e.g., seeing smoke and inferring fire).
• Upamana (Comparison): Learning the meaning of a word by comparing it to known objects.
• Shabda (Testimony): Knowledge derived from reliable authorities or scriptures.

Five-Membered Syllogism

Nyaya developed a sophisticated five-step logical process (Avayava) to prove a point: Pratijna (Hypothesis), Hetu (Reason), Udaharana (Example), Upanaya (Application), and Nigamana (Conclusion).

Vaisheshika: Atomic Pluralism

Founded by Sage Kanada, this school is regarded as the precursor to Indian physics and chemistry.

Atomic Theory (Paramanuvada)

• It posits that the universe is made of indivisible, eternal atoms (Anu).
• There are four types of atoms: Earth, Water, Fire, and Air. Space (Akasha) is considered eternal but not atomic.
• The combination of these atoms into molecules is governed by the “Unseen Force” (Adrishta).

The Seven Padarthas (Categories)

Vaisheshika classifies everything that exists into seven categories: Dravya (Substance), Guna (Quality), Karma (Action), Samanya (Generality), Vishesha (Particularity), Samavaya (Inherence), and Abhava (Non-existence).

Purva Mimamsa: The Path of Rituals

Mimamsa focuses on the earlier (Purva) part of the Vedas, specifically the Brahmanas, which deal with rituals.

• Dharma as Action: It defines Dharma as the performance of Vedic sacrifices.
• Eternity of the Vedas: It holds that the Vedas are Apaurusheya (not created by man or God) and Nitya (eternal).
• Prabhakara and Kumarila Schools: These are the two main sub-sects of Mimamsa that differ slightly on epistemology and the nature of error.

Vedanta: The Ultimate Reality

Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa) focuses on the philosophical portion of the Vedas—the Upanishads. It is the most dominant school in modern Hindu thought.

Major Sub-schools of Vedanta

The different interpretations of the relationship between the individual soul (Jiva), the world (Jagat), and God (Brahman) led to various sub-schools:

Comparative Factsheet for UPSC Aspirants

• Theistic vs. Atheistic: While all Astika schools accept the Vedas, Samkhya and Mimamsa were originally atheistic (denying a creator god), whereas Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, and Vedanta are theistic.
• Theory of Causation: Samkhya follows Satkaryavada (effect in cause), while Nyaya-Vaisheshika follows Asatkaryavada (effect is a new creation).
• Historical Context: These schools reached their peak during the Gupta period, often called the “Golden Age” of Indian culture.
• Prasthanatrayi: The three foundational texts of Vedanta are the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Brahma Sutras.