Hinduism

Hinduism, often referred to as Sanatana Dharma (the Eternal Way), is one of the world’s oldest living religions. Unlike proselytizing faiths, it evolved through a synthesis of various Indian cultural and spiritual traditions.

Core Philosophical Foundations

The bedrock of Hindu thought lies in the pursuit of four goals of human life, known as Purusharthas.

• Dharma: Righteousness, moral values, and duty.
• Artha: Prosperity and economic values.
• Kama: Pleasure, love, and psychological values.
• Moksha: Liberation from the cycle of birth and death (Samsara).

The Six Schools of Classical Philosophy (Shad-darshana)

The orthodox (Astika) schools recognize the authority of the Vedas. These schools represent the intellectual pinnacle of ancient Indian thought.

Sub-Schools of Vedanta

Vedanta has significantly influenced modern Hinduism through various interpretations of the nature of reality.

• Advaita Vedanta (Adi Shankara): Absolute monism; Brahman is the only reality, and the world is Maya (illusion).
• Vishishtadvaita (Ramanuja): Qualified monism; the world and individual souls are real but are parts of Brahman.
• Dvaita (Madhvacharya): Dualism; Brahman (Vishnu) and the individual soul are eternally distinct.
• Shuddhadvaita (Vallabhacharya): Pure non-dualism; Krishna is the supreme Brahman.
• Dvaitadvaita (Nimbarka): Dualistic non-dualism; the soul is both different and non-different from God.

Major Sects and Traditions

Hinduism is traditionally divided into four major denominations based on the primary deity worshipped.

Vaishnavism

• Focuses on the worship of Vishnu and his ten incarnations (Dashavatara).
• Key incarnations include Rama, Krishna, Buddha (in some traditions), and the future Kalki avatar.
• Strongly associated with the Bhakti Movement in South and North India.

Shaivism

• Focuses on Shiva as the Supreme Being.
• Prominent sub-sects include Pashupata, Shaiva Siddhanta, Kashmir Shaivism, and Lingayatism (founded by Basavanna in Karnataka).
• Features the concept of the Lingam and Nandi.

Shaktism

• Worship of the Divine Mother (Devi or Shakti) as the ultimate reality.
• Important texts include the Devi Mahatmya and Lalita Sahasranama.
• Practiced through Tantric and Puranic traditions, particularly in Bengal, Assam, and Odisha.

Smartism

• Founded on the Panchayatana puja system popularized by Adi Shankara.
• Treats five deities as equal: Vishnu, Shiva, Ganesha, Surya, and Durga.

Sacred Literature: Shruti and Smriti

Hindu scriptures are categorized into two types based on how they were received and preserved.

• Shruti (That which is heard): Includes the four Vedas (Rig, Sama, Yajur, Atharva), their Brahmanas (ritual instructions), Aranyakas (forest treatises), and Upanishads (philosophical conclusions).
• Smriti (That which is remembered): Includes the Vedangas (limbs of Vedas like Grammar and Astronomy), Puranas (mythological stories), Itihasas (Ramayana and Mahabharata), and Dharmashastras (law books like Manusmriti).

Key Concepts and Terminology for Prelims

• Panchayatana: A temple layout where the main deity is surrounded by four subsidiary shrines.
• Trimurti: The triad of Brahma (Creator), Vishnu (Preserver), and Shiva (Destroyer).
• Tridevi: The triad of Saraswati, Lakshmi, and Parvati.
• Saguna Bhakti: Worship of God with form and attributes (e.g., Tulsidas, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu).
• Nirguna Bhakti: Worship of God without form or attributes (e.g., Kabir, Guru Nanak).
• Agamas: Sectarian scriptures that provide the methodology for temple construction and idol worship.

Major Hindu Festivals and Cultural Significance

• Kumbh Mela: The world’s largest religious gathering, held rotationally at Haridwar, Prayagraj, Nashik, and Ujjain every 12 years.
• Diwali: Marks the return of Rama to Ayodhya; signifies the victory of light over darkness.
• Holi: Spring festival associated with the legend of Prahlad and Holika, and the playfulness of Krishna.
• Navratri/Durga Puja: Nine nights dedicated to the forms of Shakti, culminating in Vijayadashami.
• Jagannath Rath Yatra: A massive chariot festival in Puri, Odisha, representing the journey of Krishna, Balarama, and Subhadra.

Temple Architecture Overview

Religious culture is physically manifested through three main styles of temple architecture:

• Nagara (North India): Characterized by curvilinear towers (Shikhara) and a square base.
• Dravida (South India): Distinguished by pyramid-like towers (Vimana) and massive gateways (Gopurams).
• Vesara (Hybrid): A fusion of Nagara and Dravida styles, prominently seen in the Hoysala and Chalukya temples.